CA : Functions and Responsibility of Union and States, Federal Structure and Devolution,
CA : Functions and Responsibility of Union and States, Federal Structure and Devolution,
Section titled “CA : Functions and Responsibility of Union and States, Federal Structure and Devolution,”Created : 2021-07-26 09:34
- Home ministry forms #Committee for Reforms in Criminal laws to overhaul IPC after suggestions from SC, HC, Bar Council of India and States, Universities, Law Institutes.
- Nagaland formed #committee of opposition leaders to pursue peace agreement with centre.
- Many wards constitute a Municipal Corporation that is to govern cities w/ pop more than 1 million. Wards can have more than 1 elected corporators.
Static - Functions and Responsibilities of Union and states
Section titled “Static - Functions and Responsibilities of Union and states”2020-10-21 17:02:25
Better refer Vision’s notes on this
Section titled “Better refer Vision’s notes on this”Art 245-255 in Part XI deals w/ legislative relations 4 aspects are
- territory - parliament can make laws for whole or any part of territory, state make in area of state, extra-terrestrial legis, exceptions - Prez making laws, Governor says that act no apply to schedule area, autonomous district of Assam
- distribution of subjects -
- parliamentary legislation in state field - RS passes a resolution by 2/3rd majority of present and voting, international agreement
- centre’s control over state leg - reserve bill for Prez assent, Prez assent before presenting bill, during fin emergency
Adm relations : 256 - 263 Part XI
- Distribution of executive power - matters where both Parl, state legislature have power executive authority is w/ state
- Obligation of state, centre - restriction on exec power of state to ensure compliance w/ Parliament laws, not impede or prejudice exec power of centre
- Centres direction to state - communication, railways, SC ST, Mother tongue
- Mutual Delegation - 2 or more state says so, Prez w/ consent of state, Parliament makes laws
- Coop b/w C S - Parl provide for adjudication of inter-state river water dispute, Prez form interstate council, Parl appt authority to carry out purposes of interstate trade, commerce, etc
- All India services
- Public service commission - Chair by Governor, JSPSC chair by Prez
- Integrated Judicial System
- Relation during emergency - 352, 356, 360
- Other prov - 355 protect S against external aggression, Gov appt by Prez,
- Extra const devices - NITI, National Integration Council, Central Council of health etc
Fin Relations
- Taxes enumerated in various lists, GST special provision on both C S, residuary powers w/ C
- Distribution of tax revenue - 80th CAA 10th Fin Comm 29% to S, GST subsumed Central Excise, Additional Excise, Service tax, Additional Customs, Special Additional Customs, Central Surcharges and Cesses, Octroi, Luxury, State VAT, Purchase tax
- Taxes levied by C Collected appropriated by State - Art 268 ex stamp duties on bills of exchanges, cheque etc
- Taxes Levied Collected by C but assigned to S Art 269 - on sale purchase of goods within etc
- Taxes levied and Collected by C but Distributed b/w C and S Art 269A - most taxes and duties in Union List
- Surcharge on Certain Taxes and Duties for purpose of centre Art 271
- Taxes Levied collected and Retained by States enumerated in State list
- Distri of non-tax revenue for C - posts, railways, broadcasting etc, S - irrigation, agri, fisheries, SPSE etc
- Grant in Aids - Statutory Art 275 S in need, grant for SC ST
- Discretionary Grants 282,
- GST 279A council, Fin Comm,
- Protect States Interest - Prior Prez assent for intro tax bills related to states, changes meaning of agri income etc
- Borrowing by C and S - S can borrow only within IN, S cannot raise loans if part is outstanding or collateral given by V
- Tax immunities - Central property, Exemption of State property
Corresponding Chapters in Laxmikanth
- Chapter 5 : [[Union and its Territories]]
- Chapter 12 : [[Parliamentary System]]
- Chapter 13 : [[Federal System]]
- Chapter 14 : [[Center State Relations]]
- Chapter 15 : [[Interstate Relations]]
- Chapter 16 : [[Emergency Provisions]]
- Chapter 38 : [[Panchayati Raj]]
- Chapter 39 : [[Municipalities]]
Issues and Challenges pertaining to Federal Structure
Section titled “Issues and Challenges pertaining to Federal Structure”2020-10-21 17:03:22
- Federalism - 2 levels of govt, independent tax base, written consti, independent judiciary, Rigid Constitution, Supremacy of Const, Bicameralism.
- Unitary features - Strong centre, States not indestructible, Single Constitution, Flexibility of Const, no equality of state representation, Emergency provisions, Single Citizenship, Integrated Judiciary, All India Services, Integrated auditing, Parliament’s authority over state list, Appt of Governor, Integrated Election machinery, Veto over state bills
- Basic feature as per SR Bommai case
- IN federalism based on Canadian model
- Issues pertaining
- Per K Santhanam - dominance of centre in financial sphere, dependence of state for grants, emergence of central erstwhile planning commission
- River water disputes, regional parties, creation of new states, SC’s imposition of several procedural limitation on use of Art 356
- Mode of appt dismissal of Governor, Discriminatory and partisan role of Gov, Imposition of Prez rule , Deploy of central forces, Reser of state bill for consideration of Prez, Mgt of All India Service, Electronic media for political purpose, special status to states, Central Sector Schemes, National Counter Terrorism Centre, Role in international treaties
- 1st ARC -
- estd Inter-state council under Art 263,
- Appt of experienced non-partisan Governors
- Delegation of max powers to state
- More fin resources to state, Deploy Central armed forces on their request
- Rajamannar Committee by TN Govt, Anandpur Sahib Resolution, West Bengal,
Sarkaria Commission - Need to Change Functional Aspects,
Section titled “Sarkaria Commission - Need to Change Functional Aspects,”- Permanent Interstate council, Intergov council,
- 356 should be sparingly used, strengthen AIS,
- Residuary power w/ Centre, reasons for withholding assent to state, reconstitute zonal council,
- C deploy armed armed forces w/o consent, consult before making law in concurrent list,
- Governor cannot dismiss council of ministers until majority, Governors term of 5 yrs not disturbed unless compelling,
Puncchi Commission 2007 - C S Relations during Social Conflicts, Mega Projects, Devolution of Powers to PRI,
Section titled “Puncchi Commission 2007 - C S Relations during Social Conflicts, Mega Projects, Devolution of Powers to PRI,”- prior agreement before making laws in Concurrent list, restrained in making laws in state, concurrent list, auditing role by inter-state council, 6 months for Prez to decide on reserved bills, financial obligations become permanent for FC
- Guidelines for selecting Gov
- Eminent in some walk of life, outside the state, detached figure, not part in politics
- Impeachment for Gov, fixed tenure of 5 yrs, discretionary powers should not be arbitrary,
- Guidelines for Gov role in appt of CM
- Pre poll - single largest party - post electoral coalition - post electoral alliance
- Emergency only in last resort, zonal councils meet 2 a yr,
- Constitutionally defined devolution of power to local bodies
- Art 262 adjudication of ISWD,
- Art 263 Inter State Council for effective coordination by Prez,
- Full Faith and credit to public acts, judicial proceedings of centre and every state
- Inter State Trade and Commerce - Art 301 - 307
- Zonal Councils
- Cooperative Federalism -
- NITI Aayog -
2nd ARC Recom for Water Dispute Redressal
Section titled “2nd ARC Recom for Water Dispute Redressal”2020-11-07 17:13:13
- Union Govt needs more proactive & decisive
- River Basin Authority set upt for each inter-state river
- Chairmen of all River Basin Organisation be made mem of National Water Resource Council
- NWRC and RBOs should play more positive role, council and secretariat must be more proactive
- National water law be enacted
Devolution of Powers and Finances up to Local Levels and Challenges therein
Section titled “Devolution of Powers and Finances up to Local Levels and Challenges therein”2020-10-21 17:03:38
PRI
-
Balwant Rai Mehta comm - demo decentralisation, 3 tier sys
-
Ashok Mehta C - 2 tier sys, regular social audits, rep of political parties at all level - GVK Rao C - LM Singhvi - 1st time recom constitutional provision
-
Powers and Responsibility
- State govt endows ex plans for economic, social dev, agri, primary secondary education, health, Sanitation etc
- Panchayat at Village Level
- Gram Sabha - all electors, meets 2 times a year, hears statements of accounts, audits, reports etc
- G Panchayat - no of mem based on pop of villages, method of election determined by S, seats reserved,
- Functions -
- Compulsory - sanitation, cleaning roads, minor irrigation, vaccination, health care etc
- Optional - tree plantation on road sides, promote agri etc
- Also dev of plan, annual budget, relief in natural calamity, selection of beneficiaries after 73 CAA
- Source of Income - mainly depend of S Govt, power to levy tax on immovable property, commercial crops, drainage, sanitation fee, supply of water fee, lighting tax, entertainment tax, tax on animals, non-mechanical vehicles
- Functions -
- Nyaya Panchayat - tenure 3-5 yrs, petty civil criminal cases, fines upto 100rs, no lawyers
- Panchayat Samiti - middle tier. Strength depends on pop, some are Directly elected, 1 Sarpanch of P is ex-officio mem, Chairs indirectly elected.
- Functions
- Headed by BDO, agri, land improv, watershed dev, social and farm forestry, tech and vocational edu
- Implementation of specific plants w/ choice to location and Beneficiaries available to them
- Income sources - tax on water for drinking, irrigation, lighting, tolls for bridges, income from property like lands, public roads etc, grants from S, funds from ZP
- Functions
- Zila Parishad
- some directly elected, Chair of P Samiti is ex-officio mem, Chair of ZP elected indirectly
- Functions - coordinates activities, supervises PS, schemes to improv agri production, exploit ground water, extend rural electrification, functions given under C or S sponsored programs
- Income - Taxes on business in rural areas for 6 months, on brokers, commission agents, tax on land revenue, grants, donations, may raise loans
-
Issues w/ Finances
- Dependence on upper tiers - thin tax domain and own reluctance, Inflexibility of funds granted by S, S Govt not keen to devolve funds
- Need - explore additional rev sources ex tax on tourist vehicles restaurants theatres etc, Incentivise Better performance, Royalty from minerals, Primary authority over taxation,
-
Issues w/ PRIs
- Unscientific Distribution of Fund, Incompatible relation b/w the 3 tiers - treating lowers as subordinates,
- Inadequate finances, lack of cordial relation b/w officials and people, Lack conceptual clarity
- un democratic composition of PRIs - indirect election in PS,
- Structural issues - political/caste factionalism corruption inefficiency motivated action power concentration
- Administrative Problems - lack incentives, low promotion opportunities, Bureaucratic Apath
- Politicization of PRIs - seen as organisational arm of political party
-
PRI Roadmap
- Inc devolution, exclusive right to collect levy taxes, devolution linked w/ performance,
- Panchayat Empowerment Accountability Incentive Scheme PEAISformed devolution index DI, 2 stage assessment
- Empowerment, Accountability - GS should approve plans etc, E Governance, Decentralised Planning
-
Problems w/ PESA (extension of schedules area) under 5th Schedule
- Dilutes role of Tribal Advisory councils, lack of coordination at centre, lack of operationalization - rules still not in place, ignoring the spirit of PESA, Ambiguous definition - ex water bodies, minor minerals etc
-
Parastatals - institutions wholly or partially owned by Gov, delivery specific services ex District Rural Dev Agency DRDA, District Health Society DHS, District Water Sanitation Scheme DWSC etc
- Issues - undermines authorities of PRIs,
74th CAA Urban Local Bodies
- Functions :
- Deliberative - acts like legislature, discusses, debates policies
- Compulsory - water supply, construction maintain of roads, streets, bridges etc
- Discretionary Functions - construct maintain rescue homes, housing for low incomes, etc
- Issues
- Disqualification is similar to SLA, not consistent in all states
- Better regulate election expenses, code of conduct; restricted local autonomy, lack of Fin, local bodies can be dissolved by them often for pecuniary benefits/political dissention, migration from rural areas - slums, shifting powers from S gov to private donor entities, lack consistent urban dev policy
- Urban Local Finance - taxes, fees fines, earning from enterprises like land, tanks, markets, shops etc, property tax, advertisement tax, professional tax, Octroi,
- Issues
- Lack of Fin sourcestax not sufficient, staff ill-equipped, manner of assessment of property tax was opaque, Small tax base - most properties outside jurisdictional area, User charges - less than viable rates are charged
- Need
- Separate tax domains, mapping of all properties Geo tagging them, transparent flexible system of taxation - physical verification, abolish octroi tax, impact study, charges on congestion
Other issues
- Problems w/ District Planning Comm - yet to function as designated by the consti, few states prepare such plans, funds given to P are tied to schemes, States do not provide actual amount for CSS, planning is of poor quality
- Way Ahead - S prepare method to provide support to institutionalise decentralised planning, prescribe time limits for implementation of plans
- Panchayat Devolution Index of NITI
2020-10-30 14:20:15
| Quesion | Year |
|---|---|
| How is the Finance Commission of India constituted? What do you about the terms of reference of the recently constituted Finance Commission? Discuss. | 2018 |
| Assess the importance of Panchayat system in India as a part of local government. Apart from government grants, what sources the Panchayats can look out for financing developmental projects. | 2018 |
| “The local self-government system in India has not proved to be effective instrument of governance”. Critically examine the statement and give your views to improve the situation. | 2017 |
| Discuss the essentials of the 69th Constitutional Amendment Act and anomalies, if any that have led to recent reported conflicts between the elected representatives and the institution of the Lieutenant Governor in the administration of Delhi. Do you think that this will give rise to a new trend in the functioning of the Indian federal politics? | 2016 |
| To what extent is Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, bearing marginal note “Temporary provision with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir”, temporary? Discuss the future prospects of this provision in the context of Indian polity. | 2016 |
| Did the Government of India Act, 1935 lay down a federal constitution? Discuss. | 2016 |
| The concept of cooperative federalism has been increasingly emphasized in recent years. Highlight the drawbacks in the existing structure and the extent to which cooperative federalism would answer the shortcomings. | 2015 |
| In absence of a well-educated and organized local level government system, Panchayats and Samitis have remained mainly political institutions and not effective instruments of governance. Critically discuss. | 2015 |
| Recent directives from Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas are perceived by the Nagas’ as a threat to override the exceptional status enjoyed by the State. Discuss in light of Article 371A of the Indian Constitution. | 2013 |
| Many State Governments further bifurcate geographical administrative areas like Districts and Talukas for better governance. In light of the above, can it also be justified that more number of smaller States would bring in effective governance at State level? Discuss. | 2013 |
| Constitutional mechanisms to resolve the inter-state water disputes have failed to address and solve the problems. Is the failure due to structural or process inadequacy or both? Discuss. | 2013 |
Answers
Section titled “Answers”- To what extent, in your opinion, has the decentralisation of power in India changed the governance landscape at the grassroots ? (आपकी राय में, भारत में िक्ति के नवके न्द्रीकरण ने जमीनी स्तर पर िासन-पररदृश्य को हकस सीमा तक पररवर्तत हकया है?) 2022
- While the national political parties in India favour centralisation, the regional parties are in favour of State autonomy. Comment. (“भारत में राटिट्ीय राजनैनतक दल के न्द्रीयकरण के पक् में हैं, जबहक क्ेत्रीय दल राज्य स्ायत्ता के पक् में ।” हिप्पणी कीजजए।) 2022
- How have the recommendations of the 14th Finance Commission of India enabled the States to improve their fiscal position? (भारत के 14वें नवत् आयोग की सं स्तुनतयो ने रा ं ज्यो को अपनी राजकोषीय स् ं स्नत सुधारने में कै से सक्म हकया है?) 2021
- The jurisdiction of the Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) regarding lodging an FIR and conducting probe within a particular State is being questioned by various States. However, the power of the States to withhold consent to the CBI is not absolute. Explain with special reference to the federal character of India. (एक राज्य-नविेष के अन्र प्थिम सूचना ररपोि्भ दायर करने तथिा जांच करने के के न्द्रीय अन्वेषण ब्ूरो (सी. बी. आइ.) के क्ेत्रासधकार पर कई राज्य प्श्न उठा रहे हैं . हालांहक, सी. बी. आइ. जांच के ललए राज्यो द् ं ारा दी गई सहमनत को रोके रखने की िक्ति आत्यं नतक नही है। भारत संघीय ढाँचे के ं नविेष सं दभ्भ में नववेचना कीजजए।) 2021
- How far do you think cooperation, competition and confrontation have shaped the nature of federation in India? Cite some recent examples to validate your answer. (आपके नवचार में सहयोग, स्पधा्भ एवं संघष्भ ने हकस प्कार से भारत में महासंघ को हकस सीमा तक आकार हदया है ? अपने उत्र को प्माशणत करने के ललए कुछ हाललया उदाहरण उधिृत कीजजए।) 2020
- Indian Constitution exhibits centralising tendencies to maintain unity and integrity of the nation. Elucidate in the perspective of the Epidemic Diseases Act, 1897; The Disaster Management Act, 2005 and recently passed Farm Acts. (राटिट् की एकता और अखण्डता बनाये रखने के ललये भारतीय सं नवधान के न्द्रीयकरण करने की प्वृनत प्दर्ित करता है। महामारी असधननयम, 1897; आपदा प्बं धन असधननयम, 2005 तथिा हाल में पाररत हकये गए कृ नष क्ेत्र के असधननयमो के ं पररप्ेक् में सुस्पटि कीजजए।) 2020
- The strength and sustenance of local institutions in India has shifted from their formative phase of ‘Functions, Functionaries and Funds’ to the contemporary stage of ‘Functionality’. Highlight the critical challenges faced by local institutions in terms of their functionality in recent times. (‘भारत में स्ानीय ननकायो की सुदृ ं ढ़ता एवं सं पोनषता ‘प्काय्भ, काय्भकता्भ व कोष’ की अपनी रचनात्मक प्ावस्ा से ’ प्काया्भत्मकता’ की समकाललक अवस्ा की ओर स्ानान्ररत हई है। हाल के समय में प्काया्भत्मकता की दृटिी से स्ानीय ननकायो द् ं ारा सामना की जा रही अहम् चुनौनतयों को आलोहकत कीजजए।) 2020
- “The reservation of seats for women in the institutions of local selfgovernment has had a limited impact on the patriarchal character of the Indian Political Process.” Comment. (“स्ानीय स्िासन की सं स्ाओ में मह ं हलाओ के ल ं लए सीिो के आर ं क्ण का भारत के राजनननतक परारिम के नपतृतंत्रात्मक अशभलक्ण पर एक ससगमत प्भाव पडा है ।” हिपण्ी कीजजए।) 2019
- How is the Finance Commission of India constituted? What do you about the terms of reference of the recently constituted Finance Commission? Discuss. (भारत के नवत्ीय आयोग का गठन हकस प्कार हकया जाता है? हाल में गहठत नवत्ीय आयोग के नवचाराथि्भ नवषय (िन ऑफ रेफरेंस) के बारे में आप क्ा जानते है? नववेचना कीजजए।) 2018
- Assess the importance of Panchayat system in India as a part of local government. Apart from government grants, what sources the Panchayats can look out for financing developmental projects. (भारत में स्ानीय िासन के एक भाग के रूप में पंचायत प्णाली के महत्व का आकलन कीजजए। नवकास पररयोजनाओ के ं नवत्ीयन के ललए पंचायतें सरकारी अनुदानो के अलावा और ं हकन स्ोतो को खोज सकती है?) ं 2018
- “The local self-government system in India has not proved to be effective instrument of governance”. Critically examine the statement and give your views to improve the situation. (“भारत में स्ानीय स्िासन पधिनत, िासन का प्भावी साधन सानबत नहीं हई है।” इस कथिन का समालोचनात्मक परीक्ण कीजजए तथिा स्स्नत में सुधार के ललए अपने नवचार प्स्तुत कीजजए।) 2017
- Discuss the essentials of the 69th Constitutional Amendment Act and anomalies, if any that have led to recent reported conflicts between the elected representatives and the institution of the Lieutenant Governor in the administration of Delhi. Do you think that this will give rise to a new trend in the functioning of the Indian federal politics? (69वें सं नवधान सं िोधन असधननयम के उन अत्यावश्यक तत्त्वो और ं नवषमताओ, य ं हद कोई हो, पर च ं चा्भ कीजजए, जजन्ोने ं हदल्ी के प्िासन में ननवा्भचचत प्नतननसधयो और उप-राज्यपाल के बीच हाल में समाचारो ं ं में आए मतभेदो को पैदा कर ं हदया है । क्ा आपके नवचार में इससे भारतीय पररसं घीय राजनीनत के प्काय्भण में एक नई प्वृचत् का उदय होगा ?) 2016
- To what extent is Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, bearing marginal note “Temporary provision with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir”, temporary? Discuss the future prospects of this provision in the context of Indian polity. (भारतीय सं नवधान का अनुच्ेद 370, जजसके साथि हाशिया नोि “जम्-कश् ू ीर राज्य के सम्न में अस्ायी उपबन” लगा हआ है, हकस सीमा तक अस्ायी है ? भारतीय राज्य-व्यवस्ा के सं दभ्भ में इस उपबन की भावी सभिावनाओ पर च ं चा्भ कीजजए।) 2016
- Did the Government of India Act, 1935 lay down a federal constitution? Discuss. (क्ा भारत सरकार असधननयम, 1935 ने एक पररसं घीय सं नवधान ननधा्भररत कर हदया थिा ? चचा्भ कीजजए।) 2016
- The concept of cooperative federalism has been increasingly emphasized in recent years. Highlight the drawbacks in the existing structure and the extent to which cooperative federalism would answer the shortcomings. (हाल के वषमों में सहकारी पररसं घवाद की सं कपिना पर असधकासधक बल हदया जाता रहा है। नवद्यमान सं रचना में असुनवधाओ और सहकारी पर ं रसं घवाद हकस सीमा तक इन असुनवधाओ का हल न ं नकाल लेगा, इस पर प्काि डाललए।) 2015
- In absence of a well-educated and organized local level government system, `Panchayats’ and ‘Samitis’ have remained mainly political institutions and not effective instruments of governance. Critically discuss. (सुशिशक्त और व्यवस्स्त स्ानीय स्तर िासन-व्यवस्ा की अनुपस्स्नत में ‘पंचायतें’ और ‘सगमनतयाँ’ मुख्तः राजनीनतक सं स्ाएँ बनी रही हैं न हक िासन के प्भावी उपकरण। समालोचनापूव्भक चचा्भ कीजजए।) 2015
- Though the federal principle is dominant in our Constitution and that principle is one of its basic features, but it is equally true that federalism under the Indian Constitution leans in favour of a strong Centre, a feature that militates against the concept of strong federalism. Discuss. ( यद्यनप पररसं घीय ससधिांत हमारे सं नवधान में प्बल है और वह ससधिांत सं नवधान के आधाररक अशभलक्णो में से एक है, परंतु यह भी इतना ं ही सत्य है हक भारतीय सं नवधान के अधीन पररसं घवाद सिति कें द्र के पक् में झुका हआ है। यह एक ऐसा लक्ण है जो प्बल पररसं घवाद की सं कपिना के नवरोध में है। चचा्भ कीजजए।) 2014
- Recent directives from Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas are perceived by the Nagas as a threat to override the exceptional status enjoyed by the State. Discuss in light of Article 371A of the Indian Constitution.(पेिट्ोललयम एवं प्ाकृ नतक गैस मं त्रालय के हाल के ननदेिो को ‘नागाओ ं ’ द् ं ारा उनके राज्य को गमली नवशिटि स्स्नत को रद् करने के ऽतरे के रूप में देखा गया है। भारतीय सं नवधान के अनुच्ेद 371A के आलोक में इसकी नववेचना कीजजए।) 2013
- Many State Governments further bifurcate geographical administrative areas like Districts and Talukas for better governance. In light of the above, can it also be justified that more number of smaller States would bring in effective governance at State level? Discuss. (अनेक राज्य सरकारें बेहतर प्िासन के ललए भौगोललक प्िासननक इकाईयो जैसे जनपद व तालुको ं को ं नवभाजजत कर देती हैं। उति के आलोक में, क्ा यह भी औचचत्यपूण्भ कहा जा सकता है हक हक असधक सं ख्ा में छोिे राज्य, राज्य स्तर पर प्भावी िासन देंगे? नववेचना कीजजए।) 2013
- Constitutional mechanisms to resolve the inter-state water disputes have failed to address and solve the problems. Is the failure due to structural or process inadequacy or both? Discuss. (अन्र-राज्य जल नववादो का समाधान करने में सां ं नवधाननक प्हरियाएँ समस्ाओ को सम् ं ोसधत करने व हल करने में असफल रही है। क्ा यह असफलता सं रचनात्मक अथिवा प्हरियात्मक अपया्भप्तता अथिवा दोनो के कारण ं हई है? नववेचना कीजजए।) 2013