Chola

2020-04-27 12:05:33

Founder and Early Rulers

Founder of the early medieval Chola dynasty was Vijayalaya from Tanjore by defeating Muttaraiyar Chieftains.
Estd ruler around Woraiyur but accepted overlordship of Pallavas.

Aditya I (871 - 907) Succeeded Him

Defeated the Pandyas after allying with Pallavas
Defeated Pallava king Aparajita entered into matrimonial alliance with them in 893 CE -> now controlled Tondaimandalam.
Maybe had help from Cheras.
Claims to defeat Western Gangas.

Parantaka I (907-953) Succeeded

Conquered Madurai and assumed title of Madurantaka and Maduraikonda or destroyer of Madurai.
Defeated Pandya and King of Sri Lanka at battle of Vellur.
Krishna III of Rashtrakuta was also defeated and assumed title of conqueror of Kanchi and Tanjore.
Chola Parantaka also defeated a similar alliance.

Raja Raja Chola/ RajaRaja I aka Arulmoli Varman (985-1014)

Broke the alliance b/w SL, Pandya and Cheras.
Invaded and destroyed Anuradhapura/ SL.
Defeated W. Chalukyas Vimaladitya and Rashtrakutas and occupied Maldives.
Defeated Pandya occupied Madurai.
Invasion of SL captured northern part.
Referred to as Ulakalnanda Perumal or the great one who measured Earth suggest he ordered great land survey.
Greatest ruler of the Chola dynasty.

Rajendra I (1016 -1044) Succeeded Him

Won over Mahinda V of SL and against Pandyas, Kerala, W Chalukyas Jayasimha II.
Marched against Mahipala, Pala king of Bengal and crossed Ganga, subjugated South Orissa.
==Built capital of Gongaikondacholapuram assumed title==, large tank created near it.
Campaign against Sri Vijaya in Malaya peninsula.
Conquered Pegu, Myanmar, Andaman and Nicobar.

Rajadhiraja I (1044-52)

Suppressed rebellions of Pandyas, Kerala territories Ashvamedh carried out.
W Chalukya king Someswara I defeated and killed him in Bo Koppam.

Rajendra II (1052 - 64)

Crowned in battlefield, continued struggle defeated him, alos defeated Vikramaditya II.
Subdued rebellion, naval expedition to East India.

Kulottunga I (1070-1122)

Trade flourished sent embassy to China.
Known as Shungam tavirtta/ abolisher of tolls.
Fought against Paramaras, overran Kalinga.
Lost overseas possessions.
Survey of land for revenue purposes.

Kulottunga II (1135- 1150 )

Was grandson of Kulottunga I and son of Vikrama Chola who he succeeded aka Tiruchiru chola.
Undertook renovation of Chidambram temple. Removed Vishnu temple from premises and has been called an anti-vaishnavite.

RajaRaja Chola II (1150 - 1173)

Controlled a vast terrirtory from Kalinga to Northern SL.
His reign is called the start to the dynasties downfall.

Polity

Referred to king as Ko/King, perumal or perumal adigal/ great one
Inscription mentions them as attractive, warrior, conqueror, protector of varnashram dharma, destroyer of evil etc.
Compared to gods viz Rajaraja compared to Vishnu
Origin myths were rooted in Puranic traditions often combining Brahmana and Kshatriya ancestry
Prashasti and Genealogy is absent in inscription
Legitimised through various vedic sacrifices
Centralisation increased during Rajaraja’s reign shown by decreased inscriptional references to chiefs
During Koluttonga’s reign there was a rise in such references signalling decline of monarchy
Thanjavur was capital
Brihadishvara temple was built by Rajaraja
- Walls have representations of Shiva, Gaja Lakshmi, Sarasvati, Durga etc
- Famous for Tripurantaka form of Shiva

Source : Uttiramerur Inscription and Its Significance

Incriptions are found in 3 important temples the Perumal temple, Subramanya temple and the Kailasnatha temple.
These temples have inscriptions from Raja Raja Chola, Rajendra Chola, Krishnadeva Raya of Vijayanagara as well but important of which is the one by Parantaka Chola.
2 inscriptions mentions the procedure and qualification
Variyam : annual committee, village adm to look after affairs ^78e768
Eri Variyam : look after irrigational lakes ponds,
Gold testing comm/ Pon Variyam : check purity, 6 mem
Kalani Variyam : growth of agri product like paddy
Kuda Olai : pot ticket system, election sys
Totta Variyam : comm would look after Garden of village,

Democratic Nature of their Polity/ Where Chola assemblies democratic

#todo
Inscriptions gives the qualification for candidates to stand up for elections, details about constitution of wards, disqualification norms, mode of election, functions of those committees, power to remove wrongdoers etc.
- Qualification criteria included age limit b/w 35-70 yrs, possession of immovable property that was taxable , minimum educational qualification etc.
- Elected members who accepted bribes, misappropriated property, committed incest, or acted against public interest were disqualified.
On the walls of the mandapa are various details of transactions done for administrative, judicial, commercial, irrigational purposes.
Villagers had the right to recall representatives.
Entire village including infants had to there at the villages assembly mandapa when the elections were held only sick and those on pilgrimage were exempt.
Village assembly drafted the constitution for the election. Villages were divided into 30 wards having 1 rep each.

Administrative Structures/ Chola Local Self Govt

Cholas had Brahmana Purohits and Rajaguru
Pallavas, Cheras, Pandyas had council of ministers
After the reign of Rajajraja I Chola inscriptions mention a large number of terms for offices and officials
- His reign also saw massive land survey and assessment, empire was divided into units known as valanadus
- After the reign of Koluttunga there was a decline
- Landowners are mentioned as udaiyan, velan, muvendavelan
- Officials at nadu were nadu vagai, nadu kuru, kottam vagai
- Percise function of these officials are not clear
Chola land revenue was undertaken by corporate bodies like ur, nadu, sabha and nagaram
Eccoru - obligation of villagers to provide food for state officials
Muttaiyal, vetti, Kudimai - meant to provide labour services
Kadamai was land revenue 40-50% of produce collected in Kind
Antarayam was rural tax collected in cash
Senapati and Dandanayakam were imp military officers

Segmentary State Theory

Unitary state - is where there is central monopoly of power exercised by a specialised administration staff
Segmentary state - political power is exercised within a pyramidal series of segments
- Territorial sovereignty is limited
- Around periphery centre exercises limited control
- Peripheries are subordinate foci of power
- They are flexible, fluctuating, changing their allegiance from time to time
- Burton Stein added to this
  - Segmentary state is dual consisting of political control and ritual sovereignty RS
  - Multiple centres of source of RS

Nature of South Indian States

KAN Sastri has portrayed the Chola state as highly centralised in order to glorify and has nationalistic tinge

Burton Stein Criticised This ‘traditional Historiography’

did not relate the state to society and economy, especially the agrarian order
Centralised Chola state and strong local self-governing institution was counter intuitive/ inconsistent
A/C to him the fault was in characterisation of state
Steins model is based on sacral kingship, segmentary state, peasant society and peasant state
King’s power was confined to central areas and outside it was only a ritual figure
Land revenue limited and revenue depended mainly on looting expeditions
Denied the existence of Chola bureaucratic machinery to control local administration
Also denied existence of Chola standing army - mil function was distributed among peasantry, merchants etc
Thus it was not a centralised state

Problems with Steins Theory

By calling kingship as purely sacral he has denied all military achievements
As per him all military expedition were cattle raids
War and loot was part but the persistence of empires like Maurya, Gupta, Satavahana, Cholas etc suggests more than mere cattle raids
Some adm and revenue structure did exist to mobilise people to wage war
Various Chola inscriptions refer to administrative offices and attempts were made to centralise adm
Was an increased involvement of king in passing orders and officials reached out to villages to carry out orders
Existence of corporate village org did not mean that they exercised political power at higher levels
Other Models are
- Feudalism model
- Mode of production and link b/w land, labour and state structure

Economy

Role of Nadus and Nagarams in the process of Urbanisation

This process of urbanisation during the chola period was essentially reurbanisation brought about by agrarian expansion and organisation of peasants in micro regions like Nadu.
This allowed the Chola country to have a big agrarian base and large surpluses that were redirected towards other sectors of economy -> led to dev of trade organisations such as the Ayyavole.
These market centres called Nagaram prolifereated significantly under the Chola rule. They were points of exchange.
Many of such centres were founded by Royal sanction and suffixes like pura or pattana was used.
Nagarams located at the intersection of regional trade developed into large towns. Ex Manigramam, Anjuvannam.
These nagarams linked the ports with political and administrative centers, and with craft centers of the interior.
They enabled the movt of long distance trade.
Specialisation in marketing and trade let to emergence of organisations sucha s Saliya nagaram ie weavers cum traders, Sankarappadi nagaram or oil mongers cum traders and Paraga nagaram or foreign traders.

Art and Architechture

![[11.19 Growth of Art and Architecture#Important feature of Chola Sculpture]]

![[11.19 Growth of Art and Architecture#Dravidian Style of Temple Architecture under Chola rulers]]

Critical Analysis of their Rule

#todo
Chola polity was ritualistic in nature. The rulers had to constantly participate in events that legitimised their rule as upholders of the Brahmanical cosmic order.
This long term support to ritualisation, temple making put the priest class into a privileged position that continued later on.
This also meant that secular literature and secular education such as science and medicine was neglected.
The tradition of female dancers in temples as devadasis emerged who later became one of the most abused classes in south Indian society who were often sold into prostitution.
Chola warfare into Ceylon was a part of their economic activity brought lot of death and destruction into the island and other neighbouring dynasties. However this was a common occurence in medieval kingdoms.

Cultural Analysis

#todo
Sculpture and Architecture from above.

Art under Chola rule

Brihadesvar temple houses some chola frescoes in the circumambulatory corridor.
smooth limestone batter was applied over stones that took 2-3 days to set and within this time the paintings were painted.
Most Chola paintings were painted over during the Nayaka period.
Certain other crafts such as gold and precious ornament industry flourished and are mentioned in the Thanjavur inscriptions.
Rivers such as Ponni had a special cultural significance during the chola rule. Its annual flooding was celebrated as a festival.
Chola conquest of the neighboring islands such as Srivijaya, Sri Lanka etc spread chola culture into these areas. They became places of intense cultural intermixing with local cultures and others from abroad.

Literature

It was a golden age of Tamil Culture various works sucha s Rajarajesvara Natakam, Viranukkaviyam and Kannivana Puranam were written.
Jain and Buddhist literature flourished as well. Jivakachintamani was written by Tirtakkatevar.
Buddhamitra was grammarian who wrote Virasoliam.
Commentaries were written on Tolkapiyyam.
Kamban’s Ramavataram is a classic of Tamil literature. He flourished during the reign of Kolutonga III. It is a rendering of Valmiki’s Ramayana.
Kalinkattuparani by Cheyankontar was written during this time which was based on the war b/w Chola king Kolutonga and Anantvarman Chodaganda of Kalinga. It is a type of Narrative poetry.

Cultural Centres

Temples became center of culture. They were often attached with hospitals, educational institutions such as ghatikas etc.
Virajendra Cholas records of donation to schools in temples is one source.
Vedas, Shastras, Grammar etc were taught here

Religion under the Cholas

#todo

https://www.tamilnadu.ind.in/tamilnadu_history/chola/religious_condition_under_chola.php

Role of Cholas in the expansion of culture outside India

Raja Raja I captured Maldives, Andaman Nicobar and parts of Java, Sumatra, Borneo and Malaya.
Trade flourished that led to Sanskritisation of many South East Asian communities.
Tamil Inscription in Sumatra names a merchant guild talks about rich overseas trade happened during the Gupta time.
Hindu temple complex at Prambanan in Java shows Dravidian architectural influences.
Chola coins have been found in Sri Lanka.
Rajendra I sent diplomatic missions to Chinese.
There wer contacts with the Cambodian kings such as Suryavarman II the maker of Ankor Vat who sent precious jewels to Kulottonga.
Had contacts with Burmese king Kyanzitta who gave a letter written in gold leaf to Chola rulers.

Importance/ Achievements

#todo

https://www.thebetterindia.com/298895/greatest-contributions-of-chola-dynasty-in-south-india-history-architecture-literature/

PYQs and Answers

The Cholas: administration, village economy and society

Describe the village administration of the Chola period as known from the Uttiramerur inscriptions. [1979, 60m]

The village administration of the Chola period was based on a system of self-governance by local assemblies or sabhas. The Uttiramerur inscriptions, which belong to the reigns of Parantaka Chola I and Rajaraja Chola I, give a detailed account of how these assemblies were formed and functioned. Some of the salient features of the village administration as known from these inscriptions are:

The village was divided into thirty wards, each having its own representative. These representatives formed the general assembly or mahasabha, which had executive, judicial and financial powers over the village affairs.

The mahasabha elected various committees or variyams for specific purposes such as irrigation, temple management, education etc. These committees consisted of five members each, who were chosen by lot from among eligible candidates. The eligibility criteria included age, residence, property ownership, tax payment etc.

The members of the committees had to take an oath of honesty and integrity before assuming office. They also had to abide by certain rules and regulations such as not accepting bribes, not holding office for more than one year, not being related to each other etc.

The committees were accountable to the mahasabha and had to submit their reports and accounts regularly. They also had to face audits and inspections by other committees or officials appointed by the mahasabha.

The village administration was also influenced by caste divisions and hierarchy. There were two major groups among the castes – Valangai (right hand) and Idangai (left hand) – which often competed for power and resources. The Brahmins enjoyed a privileged position in the society and often dominated the assemblies and committees.

Describe the development of Chola power under Rajaraja and Rajendra I. Form an estimate of their cultural contributions. [1980, 60m]

The Chola Empire, under Rajaraja I and his son Rajendra I, became a military, economic and cultural power in Asia12. They expanded their territory through conquests and naval expeditions, reaching as far as Sri Lanka, Maldives, Andaman Islands, Bengal, Odisha and Southeast Asia12. They also maintained diplomatic relations with China and other countries.

The Cholas made significant cultural contributions in various fields, such as:

Art: They developed a distinctive style of bronze sculpture, known as the Chola style, which depicted Hindu gods and goddesses with grace and realism12. They also excelled in painting, carving, metalwork and jewelry3.

Architecture: They built hundreds of temples across their empire, which showcased their engineering skills and artistic vision13. Some of their famous temples are the Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur, the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple at Jayankondam and the Airavatesvara Temple at Darasuram13. These temples are UNESCO World Heritage Sites and feature massive towers, intricate sculptures and elaborate decorations3.

Literature: They patronized Tamil poets and scholars who produced works of high literary merit and historical value43. Some of their notable works are Kambaramayanam by Kamban, Periyapuranam by Sekkizhar, Vikramacholan Ula by Ottakoothar and Kalingattuparani by Jayamkondar43. They also encouraged Sanskrit literature and inscriptions4.

Religion: They supported Hinduism, especially Shaivism, and built many temples dedicated to Shiva43. They also promoted bhakti or devotional movement among the masses through saints like Nayanars and Alvars42. They were tolerant of other religions such as Buddhism and Jainism, which flourished under their rule in some regions[1].

What were the salient features of the bureaucratic machinery of the Cholas? [1985, 20m]

Administrative Structures/ Chola Local Self Govt

The bureaucratic machinery of the Cholas was one of the most efficient and organized systems of administration in medieval India. Some of the salient features of this system were:

The Chola bureaucracy was headed by the king, who was the supreme authority and source of law. The king was assisted by a council of ministers or mantri-parishad, which advised him on various matters and executed his orders12. The Chola bureaucracy also consisted of various officials such as perundanam (chief minister), sirutaiyar (commander-in-chief), karanam (accountant), mahasandhivigrahika (foreign minister), etc. These officials were appointed by the king and were responsible for different departments such as revenue, military, justice, diplomacy, etc. The Chola bureaucracy was divided into several administrative units such as mandalam (province), valanadu (district), nadu (sub-district), kurram (group of villages) and ur (village). Each unit had its own officers and functionaries who maintained law and order, collected taxes, supervised public works, etc. The Chola bureaucracy also allowed a degree of local self-government at the village level. The villages were governed by assemblies or sabhas, which were elected by the people and had powers to manage their own affairs such as irrigation, temple maintenance, education, etc. The sabhas also cooperated with the central bureaucracy and paid taxes to the king. The Chola bureaucracy was also characterized by its professionalism and accountability. The officials were expected to be loyal, honest and efficient in their duties. They had to follow certain rules and regulations such as wearing uniforms, maintaining records, submitting reports, etc. They also had to face audits and inspections by higher authorities or special commissioners appointed by the king.

Examples of Chola Bureaucratic power.

The Chola inscriptions, which are found in various places such as temples, rocks, copper plates, etc. These inscriptions record various aspects of Chola administration such as royal orders, grants, donations, taxes, officials, assemblies, committees, etc. They also provide valuable information about the history, culture and society of the Cholas12.

The Tanjore Big Temple or Brihadeeswarar Temple, which was built by Rajaraja Chola I in 1010 CE. This temple is a magnificent example of Chola architecture and art. It also showcases the administrative and organizational skills of the Cholas as it involved mobilizing huge resources and manpower for its construction. The temple walls have numerous inscriptions that mention the names and titles of various officials who were involved in the project2.

The Uttiramerur inscriptions, which we discussed earlier. These inscriptions give a detailed account of the village administration under the Cholas and reveal their democratic and decentralized system of governance. They also show how the village assemblies cooperated with the central bureaucracy and paid taxes to the king3.

The naval expeditions and conquests of Rajendra Chola I, who succeeded Rajaraja Chola I in 1014 CE. Rajendra Chola I extended his empire beyond India to Sri Lanka, Maldives, Indonesia and Malaysia. He also sent a naval expedition to Southeast Asia and defeated several kingdoms there. He established diplomatic relations with China and received an embassy from them. These achievements demonstrate the military and diplomatic prowess of the Cholas as well as their efficient administration that enabled them to manage such a vast empire

Critically assess the period of the Cholas in the history of South India. [1991, 60m]

Critical Analysis of their Rule

The period of the Cholas in the history of South India can be assessed as follows:

On the positive side, the Cholas were one of the longest-ruling and most powerful dynasties in South India, who expanded their empire through military conquests and naval expeditions12. They established a strong administration, a prosperous economy, a vibrant culture and a tolerant society345. They patronized art, architecture, literature and religion, and left behind many monuments and works that are still admired today345. They also influenced other regions such as Sri Lanka, Maldives, Southeast Asia and China through trade and diplomacy12.

On the negative side, the Cholas were also involved in many wars and conflicts with their neighbours such as the Pandyas, Cheras, Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas, Hoysalas and Kakatiyas2. These wars drained their resources and weakened their authority over time2. They also faced internal rebellions from their feudatories and vassals who challenged their supremacy2. They eventually lost their power to the Pandyas and other emerging forces by the 13th century CE[

Write a short essay on: “Local self-government under the Cholas.” [1992, 20m]

Local Government

The Chola empire, which flourished from the ninth to thirteenth centuries CE, was one of the most powerful and prosperous kingdoms in medieval India. The Cholas are known for their achievements in art, architecture, literature, trade and warfare. However, one of their most remarkable features was their system of local self-government, which was based on a democratic and decentralized model of administration.

The system of local self-government under the Cholas was rooted in the ancient traditions of village autonomy and communal assemblies that existed in India since ancient times. The Cholas inherited and developed this system further and made it more systematic and efficient. They divided their empire into various administrative units such as mandalam (province), valanadu (district), nadu (sub-district), kurram (group of villages) and ur (village). Each unit had its own officers and functionaries who maintained law and order, collected taxes, supervised public works, etc. However, the lowest unit, i.e., the village, enjoyed a great deal of independence and self-governance.

Each village had its own general assembly or mahasabha, which consisted of all adult male residents who owned land or paid taxes. The mahasabha had executive, judicial and financial powers over all matters concerning the village. It elected various committees or variyams for specific purposes such as irrigation, temple management, education etc. These committees consisted of five members each who were chosen by lot from among eligible candidates. The eligibility criteria included age, residence, property ownership, tax payment etc. The members of these committees had to take an oath of honesty and integrity before assuming office. They also had to abide by certain rules and regulations such as not accepting bribes, not holding office for more than one year, not being related to each other etc. The committees were accountable to the mahasabha and had to submit their reports and accounts regularly. They also had to face audits and inspections by other committees or officials appointed by the mahasabha.

The village administration was also influenced by caste divisions and hierarchy.There were two major groups among the castes – Valangai (right hand) and Idangai (left hand) – which often competed for power and resources. The Brahmins enjoyed a privileged position in the society and often dominated the assemblies and committees.

The village assemblies also cooperated with the central bureaucracy and paid taxes to the king. They also received grants and donations from the king or other patrons for various purposes such as building temples, digging tanks, establishing schools etc. They also maintained records of their transactions, activities, rights, privileges etc. in inscriptions on stone or copper plates.

The best example of local self-government under the Cholas is found in the Uttiramerur inscriptions, which belong to the reigns of Parantaka Chola I and Rajaraja Chola I. These inscriptions give a detailed account of how the village assemblies were formed and functioned.

The system of local self-government under the Cholas was a unique and innovative system of administration that ensured good governance and prosperity for their empire.It was also a model of democracy and decentralization that influenced other kingdoms or regions in India or elsewhere. It also has relevance or significance today as it shows how people can participate actively in managing their own affairs at grassroot level with transparency and accountability.

Discuss the contribution of Rajaraja I and Rajendra I for the expansion of the Chola Empire. Analyse the causes and impact of the naval expeditions of the Cholas. [1993, 60m]

2. Describe the development of Chola power under Rajaraja and
Causes and impact of Naval expeditions

Rajaraja I and Rajendra I were two of the most powerful and influential rulers of the Chola Empire, which was one of the largest and longest-lasting dynasties in South India. They contributed to the expansion of the Chola Empire by conquering peninsular South India, Sri Lanka, parts of Southeast Asia and islands of Maldives123. They also built a formidable naval fleet that enabled them to dominate the Indian Ocean trade and launch naval expeditions against their rivals45.

The naval expeditions of the Cholas were motivated by various factors, such as political ambition, economic interest, religious zeal and cultural exchange. Some historians interpret them as a culmination of their “politics of plunder” and expansionism65, while others see them as a response to the growing threat of Srivijaya, a maritime empire that controlled much of Southeast Asia and tried to monopolize the trade routes57. The naval expeditions had a significant impact on both the Chola Empire and its neighbours. They enhanced the prestige and power of the Cholas, brought them enormous wealth and tribute, spread their culture and religion across Asia, fostered diplomatic relations with other kingdoms, and stimulated trade and commerce

Assess the importance of the Cholas in the history of South India. [1996, 60m]

Importance/ Achievements

Critically evaluate the achievements of the Cholas. [1998, 60m]

Importance/ Achievements

The achievements of the Cholas can be evaluated from different perspectives, such as political, military, cultural, religious, economic and social. Here are some points to consider:

Politically, the Cholas succeeded in building the greatest thalassocratic empire (a maritime power) in the history of India, thereby leaving a lasting legacy1. They established a centralized form of government and a disciplined bureaucracy1. They also maintained good relations with other kingdoms and regions, such as China, Southeast Asia and the Abbasid Caliphate1. Militarily, the Cholas expanded their domain across most of south India and also parts of Sri Lanka and southeast Asia. They defeated their rivals such as the Pandyas, Pallavas, Cheras, Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas. They also conducted naval expeditions against the Maldive Islands2 and Srivijaya1. However, they also faced some setbacks and challenges from rebellions, invasions and natural disasters1. Culturally, the Cholas contributed to the development of Tamil literature, art and architecture. They patronized poets such as Kamban who wrote Kamba Ramayanam3, a Tamil version of Ramayana. They also supported religious scholars such as Nambi Andar Nambi who compiled Periyapuranam3, a collection of stories about Shaiva saints. They created exquisite bronze sculptures of Hindu deities such as Shiva Nataraja3, using a unique technique of lost-wax casting4. They built magnificent stone temples such as Brihadeshwara Temple in Thanjavur3, Gangaikondacholapuram Temple in Gangaikonda Cholapuram3 and Airavatesvara Temple in Kumbakonam3, which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Religiously, the Cholas were mainly devoted to Shaivism (a sect of Hinduism that worships Shiva), but they also respected other faiths such as Vaishnavism (a sect that worships Vishnu), Buddhism and Jainism. They donated generously to temples and monasteries. They also spread Hinduism and Tamil culture in Sri Lanka and southeast Asia through trade and conquests. Economically, the Cholas were prosperous due to their extensive trade network with other regions. They exported commodities such as spices, textiles, pearls and gems. They imported goods such as horses, elephants, metals and ceramics. They also developed agriculture by building irrigation systems such as tanks and canals. They collected taxes efficiently through their administration system. Socially, the Cholas maintained a hierarchical society based on caste system (a system that divides people into groups based on birth). The Brahmins (priests) were at the top followed by Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (merchants) and Shudras (servants). The untouchables or outcastes were at the bottom. The Cholas did not do much to improve the status or rights of women or lower castes.

Limitations and drawbacks.

Politically, they faced some internal conflicts and rebellions from their feudatories and vassals, such as the Vengi Chalukyas and the Kadava Pallavas. They also had to deal with external threats from other powers, such as the Pandyas, Hoysalas, Kakatiyas and Delhi Sultanate.
Militarily, they suffered some losses and defeats in some of their campaigns, such as against Srivijaya in 1025 CE, against Sinhala king Vijayabahu I in 1070 CE and against Kalinga king Anantavarman Chodaganga in 1118 CE. They also faced natural disasters such as floods and famines that affected their resources and morale.
Culturally, they did not produce much original or innovative works of literature or art. Most of their works were based on existing sources or traditions. For example, Kamba Ramayanam was a translation of Valmiki’s Ramayana, and most of their temples were built in Dravidian style that was already developed by earlier dynasties such as Pallavas and Rashtrakutas.
Religiously, they were intolerant towards some sects or faiths that opposed their views or interests. For example, they persecuted Jains in Tamil Nadu for allegedly supporting their enemies such as Pandyas and Rashtrakutas. They also destroyed Buddhist monasteries in Sri Lanka for resisting their rule.
Economically, they depended heavily on trade for their income and wealth. This made them vulnerable to fluctuations in demand and supply of goods. It also exposed them to competition and conflicts with other traders or pirates. For example, they had to fight with Arab traders for control over Indian Ocean trade routes.
Socially, they maintained a rigid caste system that discriminated against lower castes and women. They did not allow them to participate in education, administration or religious activities. They also imposed harsh punishments for violating caste rules or norms. For example, they cut off the noses of people who crossed caste boundaries in marriage.

Were the Chola village assemblies democratic in nature? Give reasons for your answer. [2000, 60m]

Polity :
Mention Uttiramerur inscription

The Chola village assemblies were democratic in nature to some extent, as they involved the participation of the local people in various aspects of administration, such as taxation, irrigation, justice, education and temple management123. There were three types of village assemblies in the Chola scheme of administration - the ur, the sabha and the nagaram14. The ur was a general assembly of all tax-paying residents of a village, while the sabha was an exclusive assembly of brahmins who owned land in a village. The nagaram was an assembly of merchants and traders who lived in towns14. These assemblies had their own committees (variyaṃs) that were elected by lot or rotation for a fixed term25. They also had their own written constitutions (ur-olugu) that laid down the rules and regulations for their functioning5. However, these assemblies were not completely autonomous or egalitarian, as they were subject to the supervision and control of the central government and its officials. They also excluded certain sections of society, such as women, untouchables and landless labourers from their membership

The Cholas are said to have established a strong and well organized administration with an element of self-government at the local level. Do you agree? Give reasons. [2004, 60m]

Show that the administrative system in India reached a very high level during the Chola period. [2007, 60m]

Administrative Structures/ Chola Local Self Govt

The administrative system in India reached a very high level during the Chola period because of their well-organized and efficient structure and policies. They divided their administration into three major divisions: central government, provincial government and local government123. Here are some examples of how they managed each division:

Central government: The king was the supreme authority who had executive, legislative and military powers. He was assisted by a council of ministers and other high officials who advised him on various matters4. He also had a secretariat that handled correspondence, records and accounts3. He appointed governors, generals, judges and ambassadors to carry out his orders. He also conducted regular state tours to inspect his domains and expand his territories3.

Provincial government: The Chola empire was divided into several provinces called mandalams, which were further subdivided into valanadus or nadus. Each province was governed by a viceroy or governor who was usually a member of the royal family or a loyal noble. He was responsible for maintaining law and order, collecting taxes, supervising local administration and defending the province from external attacks12.

Local government: The lowest unit of administration was the village or ur, which was governed by an assembly of villagers called ur sabha or mahasabha. The members of this assembly were elected by the villagers based on their caste, wealth and occupation. They had the power to manage land, water, temples, schools, roads and other public works in their village12. They also had some judicial functions such as settling disputes among villagers or imposing fines for offences1. Some villages formed larger units called nadu sabha or nagaram sabha that dealt with inter-village issues such as trade, irrigation or defence1.

How far can the village assemblies or communities under the Cholas be really called democratic? [2009, 30m]

Democratic Nature of their Polity

Assess the contribution of the Cholas in the expansion of Indian culture outside India. [2011, 30m]

The contribution of the Cholas in the expansion of Indian culture outside of India was significant and varied. They played an active part in spreading Hinduism, Buddhism, Tamil language, literature, art and architecture to Southeast Asian countries such as Sri Lanka, Maldives, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Cambodia123. Here are some examples of their contribution:

Hinduism: The Cholas built many temples and shrines dedicated to various Hindu deities such as Shiva, Vishnu, Ganesha and Murugan in their conquered territories. They also patronized Hindu priests, scholars and missionaries who propagated Hindu doctrines and rituals among the local people. They also influenced the local rulers to adopt Hindu titles, names and customs. For example, Rajendra Chola I established a Shiva temple called Rajarajeshwaram at Polonnaruwa in Sri Lanka2. He also gave his daughter in marriage to a king of Srivijaya who adopted the name Sangrama Vijayatungavarman2.

Buddhism: The Cholas were tolerant towards Buddhism and supported its growth and development in Southeast Asia. They donated land, money and materials for building Buddhist monasteries, stupas and statues. They also encouraged Buddhist monks, nuns and pilgrims to travel between India and Southeast Asia for learning and teaching. They also respected the local Buddhist traditions and practices. For example, Rajendra Chola I sent a mission to China with gifts for the emperor that included a golden statue of Buddha2. He also restored some Buddhist monuments that were damaged by his predecessors2.

Tamil language: The Cholas promoted Tamil as a language of administration, trade and culture in their overseas domains. They issued inscriptions, coins and documents in Tamil script. They also encouraged Tamil merchants, traders and settlers to establish colonies or settlements in Southeast Asia. They also fostered Tamil literature by patronizing poets, writers and scholars who composed works on various themes such as religion, history, ethics and romance. For example, Kamban wrote Kamba Ramayanam which is a Tamil version of Valmiki’s Ramayana during the reign of Kulottunga Chola I1. He also wrote Ettuthokai which is a collection of eight anthologies of Tamil poetry1.

Art and architecture: The Cholas excelled in art and architecture that reflected their imperial glory and religious devotion. They built magnificent temples that were adorned with sculptures, paintings, carvings and inscriptions. They also developed bronze casting technique that produced realistic statues of gods and goddesses. They also influenced the local art styles by introducing Dravidian elements such as gopurams (towering gateways), vimanas (pyramidal roofs) and mandapas (pillared halls). For example, Rajaraja Chola I built Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur which is one of the largest temples in India and a UNESCO World Heritage Site1. He also commissioned many bronze statues such as Nataraja (dancing Shiva) that are considered masterpieces of Indian art

Evaluate the role of Nadu and Nagaram in the growth of urbanisation under the Cholas. [2012, 30m]

Urban Economy in South India

The role of Nadu and Nagaram in the growth of urbanisation under the Cholas was important and significant. Here are some points to explain their role:

Nadu: It was a group of villages or clan settlements that had evolved spontaneously in the rich alluvial river valleys, with no artificial boundaries. It was based on kinship ties, kin labour and communal control over land. It became a potential unit of local administration, revenue collection and self-governance under the Cholas. It had its own assembly called nadu sabha that consisted of influential landowners, village elders and representatives of various castes and occupations. The nadu sabha had powers to manage local affairs such as irrigation, taxation, justice, charity, education and temple maintenance1. Nagaram: It was a commercial town that emerged as a centre of trade, commerce and industry under the Cholas. It was under the administration of a council called nagarattar that consisted of wealthy merchants, bankers and traders. The nagarattar had powers to regulate trade activities, fix prices, collect taxes, issue coins, maintain law and order and support public works23. The nagaram also attracted artisans, craftsmen and professionals who produced various goods and services for the urban market. The nagaram also developed cultural activities such as literature, art and religion that reflected its cosmopolitan character

Evaluating various theories regarding the Chola State, throw light on its village assemblies. [2014, 15m]

Nature of South Indian States :

The debate regarding Chola state is a scholarly discussion about the nature, structure and functioning of the Chola polity that ruled over South India and parts of Southeast Asia from 9th to 13th centuries CE. The debate’s major issues include1:

The degree of control (central authority versus local autonomy) and the various roles of religious institutions in the polity. The revenue system and the surplus extraction under the Cholas and their impact on economy and society. The periodisation of Chola rule and the changes that took place during its four centuries of existence. Some of the prominent scholars who have contributed to this debate are K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, Burton Stein, Noboru Karashima, Y. Subbarayalu, R. Champakalakshmi, Hermann Kulke and Kesavan Veluthat234. They have used different sources such as inscriptions, coins, literature, art and archaeology to analyse various aspects of Chola state. They have also proposed different models such as segmentary state, integrative state, feudal state and network state to explain the dynamics of Chola polity.

The four models of segmentary state, integrative state, feudal state and network state have their own advantages and disadvantages in explaining the early medieval Indian polity. Here are some points to compare them:

Segmentary state: This model, proposed by Burton Stein, suggests that the Chola state was a loose confederation of local units that had a high degree of autonomy and self-governance. The state was based on a brahmana-peasant alliance that integrated the agrarian order and provided legitimacy to the king. The advantage of this model is that it accounts for the diversity and flexibility of the Chola polity and its ability to adapt to changing circumstances. The disadvantage is that it underestimates the role and power of the central authority and its administrative machinery12.

Integrative state: This model, proposed by Noboru Karashima, suggests that the Chola state was a strong and centralized state that exercised control over its territory through a complex bureaucracy and revenue system. The state was based on a balance between royal power and local assemblies that represented various social groups and interests. The advantage of this model is that it accounts for the continuity and stability of the Chola polity and its achievements in economy, culture and diplomacy. The disadvantage is that it overestimates the degree of uniformity and integration of the Chola polity and its resistance to change12.

Feudal state: This model, proposed by R.S. Sharma, suggests that the Chola state was a weak and decentralized state that suffered from political fragmentation and economic decline. The state was based on a system of land grants to various intermediaries who exploited the peasants and usurped royal authority. The advantage of this model is that it accounts for the conflicts and contradictions within the Chola polity and its impact on society and religion. The disadvantage is that it ignores the variations and innovations of the Chola polity and its contributions to civilization32.

Network state: This model, proposed by Hermann Kulke, suggests that the Chola state was a dynamic and expansive state that participated in trans-regional networks of trade, commerce, and culture. The state was based on a combination of royal charisma, military prowess, and religious patronage that enhanced its prestige and influence. The advantage of this model is that it accounts for the diversity and complexity of the Chola polity and its interactions with other regions and countries. The disadvantage is that it neglects the internal structure and functioning of the Chola polity and its relations with local communities

The model of Chola state as proposed by K.A. Nilakanta Sastri is known as the Imperial State model. This model suggests that the Chola state was a powerful and centralized state that extended its authority over a vast territory and maintained a well-organized administration and army. The Chola state was also a cultural and religious force that patronized art, literature, architecture, education and temples. The Chola state was based on a hierarchical and hereditary system of kingship, nobility, officials and subjects

Analyze the significance of the Uttaramerur incriptions of the Chola King Parantaka I. [2016, 10 marks]

[Uttiramerur Inscription and its significance](onenote: [[Chola]] &section-id={762B0AE5-2A23-4D1F-9D30-89664CBE1143}&page-id={E59A8A8E-8D03-4C94-819A-9C95950BEE1D}&object-id={C37D2F1B-2F05-49D9-B447-339A682E32F6}&B&base-path= https://d.docs.live.net/bbc8be5bd337910c/Documents/History%20Optional/Ancient%20History/Part%20II/Regional%20States%20during%20Gupta%20Era.one )

The significance of the Uttaramerur inscriptions of the Chola King Parantaka I is that they reveal the existence of a sophisticated and democratic system of local governance and administration in a village in South India around 920 CE. The inscriptions describe the rules and procedures for electing various committees called variyams that were responsible for different functions such as irrigation, temple management, justice, education and defence. The inscriptions also prescribe the qualifications and disqualifications for candidates and voters, as well as the methods of voting by secret ballot and drawing lots. The inscriptions show that the villagers had a high degree of autonomy and participation in their own affairs, as well as accountability and transparency in their administration

They reflect the degree of decentralization and devolution of power that the Chola state allowed to its local units, as well as the respect and recognition that it gave to their autonomy and self-governance12. They reflect the social and economic conditions of the village society, such as the role of caste, occupation, land ownership, taxation, education, religion and culture in determining the eligibility and participation of various groups and individuals in the local administration34. They influence the development and continuity of democratic traditions and institutions in South India, as well as other parts of India, by providing a model and a precedent for local self-government that was based on elections, representation, accountability and transparency.

How could the local self-government under the Cholas adjust with their centralized administration structure? [2015, 10 m]

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[Local Government](onenote: [[Local]] %20 Government&section-id={762 B 0 AE 5-2 A 23-4 D 1 F-9 D 30-89664 CBE 1143}&page-id={AFCDF 67 F-FC 1 A-4448-B 9 C 7-1 AE 033 BBADA 3}&end&base-path= https://d.docs.live.net/bbc8be5bd337910c/Documents/History%20Optional/Ancient%20History/Part%20II/Regional%20States%20during%20Gupta%20Era.one )

The local self-government under the Cholas could adjust with their centralized administration structure in several ways. Some possible ways are:

The Chola state delegated some of its powers and functions to the local units, such as collecting taxes, maintaining law and order, managing irrigation and temple affairs, and providing education and welfare123. This reduced the burden and interference of the central government in the local matters, and allowed the villagers to have more autonomy and participation in their own administration.

The Chola state also supervised and regulated some aspects of the local units, such as appointing governors or mandalas for each province, auditing accounts and records, resolving disputes and grievances, enforcing royal orders and decrees, and intervening in times of crisis or emergency245. This ensured that the local units were accountable and loyal to the central government, and maintained a uniformity and stability in the overall administration.

The Chola state also encouraged and supported some forms of cooperation and coordination among the local units, such as forming federations or confederations of villages or nadus for common interests or purposes, sharing resources or information among different assemblies or variyams, participating in regional or national festivals or ceremonies, and contributing to military campaigns or diplomatic missions123. This fostered a sense of unity and solidarity among the local units, as well as a sense of belonging to a larger polity.

“Doubtless it was not a free state; it was any rate a state” (K A N Sastri). Reflect upon the nature of local self-government institutions in the Chola country. [2018, 15 Marks]

[Nature of South Indian States :](onenote: [[Chola]] &section-id={762 B 0 AE 5-2 A 23-4 D 1 F-9 D 30-89664 CBE 1143}&page-id={E 59 A 8 A 8 E-8 D 03-4 C 94-819 A-9 C 95950 BEE 1 D}&object-id={349 A 3 A 4 B-EBA 7-4 A 14-B 1 BC-BEA 362919 BC 7}&6 D&base-path= https://d.docs.live.net/bbc8be5bd337910c/Documents/History%20Optional/Ancient%20History/Part%20II/Regional%20States%20during%20Gupta%20Era.one )
[Local Government](onenote: [[Local]] %20 Government&section-id={762 B 0 AE 5-2 A 23-4 D 1 F-9 D 30-89664 CBE 1143}&page-id={AFCDF 67 F-FC 1 A-4448-B 9 C 7-1 AE 033 BBADA 3}&end&base-path= https://d.docs.live.net/bbc8be5bd337910c/Documents/History%20Optional/Ancient%20History/Part%20II/Regional%20States%20during%20Gupta%20Era.one )

This quote by K A N Sastri is from his book A History of South India, where he discusses the nature of local self-government institutions in the Chola country. He argues that the Chola state was not a free state, meaning that it was not a democracy or a republic, but rather a monarchy with a strong central authority and a hierarchical administration. However, he also acknowledges that it was a state, meaning that it had some features of a political organization and a civil society, such as laws, institutions, culture and identity12.

One of the main features of the Chola state that Sastri highlights is the system of local self-government, which he considers as an example of “the genius of Indian civilization”. He describes how the Cholas delegated some powers and functions to the local units, such as villages or towns, which had their own assemblies or councils with elected members and various committees for specific purposes. These local bodies were responsible for managing their own affairs, such as land, water, taxes, justice, education, religion and culture. They also maintained records and accounts of their transactions and activities12.

Sastri also notes how the local self-government institutions were regulated by certain rules and procedures, such as qualifications and disqualifications for candidates and voters, methods of nomination and election, terms of office and rotation of members, duties and powers of officials and committees etc. He also mentions how these institutions were connected with the central government and other local units through various channels and mechanisms, such as governors or mandalas for each province, federations or confederations of villages or nadus for common interests or purposes etc.

Thus, Sastri reflects upon the nature of local self-government institutions in the Chola country as an important aspect of their state formation and administration.

The nature of local self-government institutions in the Chola country as per KAN Sastri can be summarized as follows:

The local self-government institutions were based on the principle of village autonomy, which meant that the villagers had the right and responsibility to manage their own affairs, such as land, water, taxes, justice, education, religion and culture12.

The local self-government institutions were organized into different types of assemblies or councils, such as sabhas (for brahmin villages), urs (for non-brahmin villages) and nagarams (for towns or trade centres), which had elected members and various committees or variyams for specific functions13.

The local self-government institutions were regulated by certain rules and procedures, such as qualifications and disqualifications for candidates and voters, methods of nomination and election, terms of office and rotation of members, duties and powers of officials and committees, records and accounts of transactions etc.

The local self-government institutions were also connected with the central government and other local units through various channels and mechanisms, such as governors or mandalas for each province, federations or confederations of villages or nadus for common interests or purposes, royal orders or decrees for important matters or issues etc