Economy and Society

2020-04-27 12:07:12

Society in Early Medieval India

Rural Society in North India during the Early Medieval Period

Krishi Parashara Composed in Bengal

Declares ==knowledge of rainfall== is root of agriculture, does not mention about irrigation
==Importance of manure==, kind of plough and draught animals to be used, how seeds should be preserved
Agricultural rituals and festivals
Seeds should not come into contact with menstruating, barren, pregnant women or has just borne a child

Works like Dak Tantra or Dakar Bachan is a Buddhist tantric work contains wise sayings, other works like Khanar Bachan also talks about agricultural matters
Various inscriptions have mentioned occupations like cultivators (Kshetrakarah), ==Irda plate of Nyaypala== mentions tradesmen, clerks, residents etc
==Ramganj plate of Ishvaraghosa== mentions Karmakara (wage labourers)
Puroga : village elder or chief, Mahattara/Mahattama was village elder too
Assam had agri settlements in lower valleys in Guwahati and Tezpur do not have any inscriptions
Rice major crop grown in eastern India, Irrigation played a major role.
Tanks, wells etc were main source of artificial irrigation it facilitated double cropping
Persian wheel/Arghatta was used in Rajasthan. Rice, wheat, barley, Jowar, millet and moong were grown. Sesame and sugarcane were cash crops #important #OptionalPYQ

Urban Society in Early Medieval India

$ RS Sharma put forward the 2 stage urban decay one from 3-4th century and other from 6th century. #important
- Admits literary evidence is not strong, cites archaeological evidence
- Led by decline in long distance trade, artisans migrated to rural areas, traders were not able to pay taxes
- But ==there was agrarian expansion==
- Merchants, traders etc transferred their rights to temples → ==feudalisation of trade and commerce==.
- Revival started from 11th century and was prominent by 14th
  - Increase in cultivation of cash crops
  - Better irrigation techniques
  - Increasing demands for commodities
  - Imp in ship building and expansion of internal trade

Criticism of the Decline of Urban Society

Xuanxang mentions Kaushambi, Shravasti, Vaishali and Kapilavastu were in decline but Thaneswar, Varanasi and Kanyakubja flourished
Various Arabic texts mentions long journeys made to India for trade

Revival Post Decline

From 11th century onwards there was an inc in range items exported viz sugar, cotton, flax cloth, buckram, tanner leather, leather goods, weapons etc
Traders used Hundikas
==Merchants played imp role in administrative org of Chalukyas==, many of them were Jainas. Gujarat was an imp center
Trade with SE Asia and China grew : Buddhists started to dominate trade exchanges. ^88c774
- Xunaxang mentions silk as most popular in India, silk items and garments were imp gift items brought from China
- Chinese porcelain overtook silk as the most imp item in 11th century
- Imports for IN were : hides, fruits, camphor, mercury
- Exports : horses, wood, frankincense, sandalwood, spices, sulphur, ivory etc.

Rural Society in South India :

Burton Stein has described it as Peasant Society, per him
- Lived in settled agrarian villages
- Asymmetrical power relations
- Developed corporate organisation
- Peasant household was multidimensional despite caste based division of labour and occupation
- BrahmanaPeasant alliance was more intense in rural areas due to popularity of Buddhism and Jainism in urban, based on self-interest.
Basic unit was Ur - were villages or village assemblies
- Non-brahmadeya villages, dealth with land sale, gift, tax exemptions
- Had agricultural fields, habitation areas, sources of drinking water, irrigation works, pasture and cremation grounds.
- Ur-nattam and ur-irukkai were residential quarters of landowners
- Kammanacheri was where artisans lived and Paraicheri where agricultural labourers
Sabha was Brahmana assembly in Brahmadeya villages
- Managed landed property, including ones associated with temples.
- Initially size was small later increased to even 12000 members
- Close relation with Chola courts
Hierarch :
- Paraiyar were socially segregated groups/ ritually impure
- Vellalar were cultivating groups further divided into landowning and tenant - were Shudras but economically powerful not like Northern counterparts
Inscriptions in Karnataka mentions villages headed by women
Landholding pattern in Brahmadeya village was based on Individuals and in non-Brah was communal holdings
When land was granted so were the right with it. 2 types of landgrants
- Karanmai - right to cultivate
- Mitatchi - possessive right
Several inscriptions from Karnataka shows that conflict in villages were due to water

Economy

Rural Economy/ Agriculture and Irrigation in South India

Land reclamation, spread of irrigation, expansion of range of crops etc extended agricultural prod
Irrigation has been analysed by James Heitzman in
- Canals consisted of majority irrigation followed by tanks
Use of Arghatta/ Persian wheel spread during this time, use of Sluice weir devices
Chola inscriptions mentions various types of irrigation works
Betel nuts were an important commodity traded in west India
Land use pattern changed. Use of ragi, jowar, bajra along with rice increased

Urban Economy in South India

Market/ Commercial centres were known as Nagarams
Had corporate body to manage affairs its members were called the Nagarattar, taniyur status means they were free from interference
A Nadu has many such Nagarams
Nagarakkani was land from which it collected revenue
Made lavish gifts to religious establishments
Improvements in craft techniques
- Hand press mills replaced by bullock driven ones
- Textile weaving featured the use of looms
Kanchipuram - weaving industry
- Weavers had their own residential sectors in all towns
- Muslins, Chintz were types that were made
- Vegetable dies, indigo, madder was used
- Block printing was in vogue
- Vertical and horizontal looms, patterned looms
- Industry was well organised
- Social mobility happened mostly during Vijayanagara period
- Taxes were taken on looms, yarn, cotton, thread etc
- Made large donations to temples, given managerial roles in them
Shift of giving gifts to Brahmanas to Temples as the construction of new and renovation of old temples took pace
Thanjavur became a major centre due to temples made so did Gongaikondacholapuram
Temples became a major urban centres
Kudammukku was a sacred centre and Palace complex of Cholas was located in Palaiyarai
Supra caste dichotomy emerged called the left hand - artisans and traders and right hand castes - agricultural groups

Trade and Traders

Mamallapura developed during Pallavas and Nagapattinam under Cholas
Corporate organisation of merchants played imp role in fixing custom duties
Rice, pulses, sesame, salt, pepper, oil, cloth, betel leaf, areca nut and metals were used
Shikarpur inscriptions mentions sandalwood, camphor, musk, horses, precious stones, semi-precious stones as being exported
Imports are mentions in an inscription at Piramalai mentions silk from China, rose water from West Asia, Elephants from Mayanmars and Horse from Arabia
Chola kings estd Erivirapattana - protected mercantile towns, emerged as centre of trade
Expedition were undertaken to control routes
South, SE Asia and East Asia were imp trading partners ^40d3d0
- SE Asian kings patronised building of monastery of Nagapattinam
- Khmer king sent gift to Rajendra I
- Rajaraja Chola sent trade mission to China