Archaeological Sources

Archaeological Sources

2020-04-18 19:29 :21

• 1 Archaeological Sources
  • 1.1 Archaeological Evidences Supports Mahabharata (900-1000 BCE)?
  • 1.2 Challenges Wrt Translating Archaeological Cultures into History
  • 1.3 Exploration
  • 1.4 Excavation
  • 1.5 Epigraphy
    • 1.5.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Inscriptions as a Source of History
    • 1.5.2 Famous Inscriptions Sites in India
      • 1.5.2.1 One of Oldest Inscription
      • 1.5.2.2 Earliest Stone Inscriptions Recording Land Grants
    • 1.5.3 Memorial Stones
    • 1.5.4 Eras Used in the Indian Subcontinent
  • 1.6 Numismatics
    • 1.6.1 Coins Mentioned in Literary Texts
    • 1.6.2 Types of Coins
      • 1.6.2.1 Punch Marked
      • 1.6.2.2 Cast Coins
      • 1.6.2.3 Die Struck
    • 1.6.3 Post Mauryan Coinage
    • 1.6.4 Numismatics as Source to Construct History
  • 1.7 Monuments
  • PYQs

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Archaeology is study of human activity through recovery and analysis of material culture like artefact, industry and assemblage.

• Key to understand human behaviour and experience and do not change with rise and fall of dynasties or kingdoms.
• Field Archaeology deals w/ exploration and excavation of sites.
• Material Culture at Hastinapur : OCP -> PGW - Flood in Ganga -> NBPW - Massive Fire -> Red, Black on Red ware w/ stamped designs -> Red wares, Glazed wares w/ floral designs.
• Marine Archaeology in Dwarka and Bet Dwarka.
• Dating techniques used are Carbon 14, thermoluminescence, potassium argon, electron spin resonance, uranium series etc.
• Chemical analysis of soil.
• Archaeometry : use of measurement to analyse ancient objects/ materials.
• Palaentology, Faunal analysis, Palae-pathology are some of the other techniques.
• Understanding natural env in which people lived is imp aspect of pre and proto history.
• Palaeo botanical studies analyses relation b/w pollen and minute plant remains viz seeds etc and geological data.
• Processualism : tried to understand culture and cultural process holistically esp in relation to ecology.
• Post processualism : material culture can be used by social group to disguise existing social relations.
• Cognitive Archaeology
• Ethno Archaeology
• Salvage Archaeology

Archaeological Evidences Supports Mahabharata (900-1000 BCE)?

• Excavations at ==Hastinapur, Kurukshetra, Panipat, Tilpat, Baghpat, Mathura and Bairat== have given evidence of PGW dated 1000 BCE.
• Matsya and Vayu Purana state flood in Ganga excavation at Hastinapur corresponds to this.
• Medieval writings viz Tarikh i Firuz Shahi and Ain i Akbari mention Indraparstha.
• Not so convincing evidences for an earlier data. ¹

Challenges Wrt Translating Archaeological Cultures into History

• Need not necessarily correspond to a linguistic group, political unit, clan, tribe etc.
• Explaining change in material culture especially pottery tradition is difficult.
• In India, incorporating arch evidence into historical narrative is difficult due to bias and perspectives of archaeologists and hsitorians.
• Need to have written records to corroborate with archaeological cultures.
• Difficult to find sites with preserved artefacts.

Exploration

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• Searching for the purpose of discovery of information or resources in an unfamiliar area is Exploration.
• But ==in the context of Archaeology it is searching for information from an area of historical information==.
• ASI leads exploration in India.

Excavation

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• ==Digging to find information of historical significance==
• Most sites dug vertically, Horizontal diggings are expensive
• Dry areas are better preserved, in Humid areas corrosion etc destroy remains

Epigraphy

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• ==Science or study of inscriptions, epigraphist is the person==
• Various types of Inscriptions are Monuments, Donative inscriptions such as Royal grants, Royal Inscriptions or panegyric ex Hatihigumpa inscription, Allahabad prashasti, Footprint inscriptions etc.
• Study of old writing in inscriptions is called Palaeography
• Sanskrit adopted as epigraphic medium in 2nd cent AD widespread in 3rd-4th
• Ashokan inscriptions are in Brahmi, Kharoshti script was deciphered 1st by James Princep
• Ashokan incriptions of Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra are in Kharoshti script which evolved from Semitic Aramaic script.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Inscriptions as a Source of History

Advantages :

• Durability
• Information connected to time, place
• Info on Political structures, administrative and revenue system
• Genealogies info
• cults that did not have a literature of their own. Eg Ajivika, Naga etc.
• dateable info on religious sects, institutions, practices.
• Source of patronage.
• Reflect history of language and literature and performing arts ex Kudiyamalai inscription and Inscription of Nataraj temple at Chidambaram

Disadvantages :

• discovery depends on chance
• Moveable inscriptions are not always found at their original place
• confusion due to exaggerated claims ex Gurjara Pratihara and Rashtrakuta king.
• Sometime genealogies skip names

Famous Inscriptions Sites in India

• Hathigumpa inscription of Kharavela king of Kalinga, 1st century BC.
• Allahabad prashasti of Samdragupta 4th century CE.
• Junagadh incriptions : mentions the Sudarshana lake and Kings like Ashoka, Rudraman, Chandragupta and Skandagupta.
• Nasik Inscription of Gautamiputra Satakarni - Maharashtra.

One of Oldest Inscription

• In Sub-continent at Bogaz Koi dated 1380 BC.
• Mentions a treaty b/w Hittite and Mitanni kings. ²
• Mentions the gods Indra, Mitra, Nasatiya and Varuna. It also mentions other gods worshipped by the nearby kingdoms.

Earliest Stone Inscriptions Recording Land Grants

• With tax exemptions are Satavahana and Kshatrapa epigraphs found at Nashik
  • The Nashik inscription dated to the 18th year of Gautamiputra’s reign states that he reaffirmed a grant of land to Buddhist monks living at the Triraśmi peak.
• The mid-4th century Pallava and Shalankayana (Salankayana Dynasty) grants are the earliest surviving copper plate grants.
  • Salankayana have 7 copper plate grants that also mention their genealogies. ³
  • Velurpalaiyam plates of Nandivarman III ( Pallava king, 9th cent. ) mentions the grant of a village to a Shiva temple. ⁴

Memorial Stones

• Made for commemorating people, mostly.
• Most common ones of dead heroes or women who committed sati.
• In Andhra called Chhaya Stambhas.
  • Ex Nagarjunakonda here 2 important memorial stone/inscriptions found were :
  • Of King Chantamula I of Ikshvaku dynasty, ornately decorated showing various parts of his life.
  • A simpler pillar is of an artisan name Mulbhuta.
• Karnataka has the largest concentration of memorial stones.
  • 2 inscription from Siddenahalli and Kembalu refer to heroic death of women
  • Gollarhatti, Atkur and Tambur refer to deaths of pets

Eras Used in the Indian Subcontinent

• To mark imp events usually ascension of Kings and were used in inscriptions
• Vikram Era 58 BCE
• Shaka Era 78 CE
• Kalachuri-Chedi Era of 248 BCE
• Gupta Era of 319-320 CE
• Kollam Era 824 CE in Kerala
• Chalukya-Vikrama Era in 1076 used in Karnataka

Numismatics

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• ==Study or collection of currency viz coins, token, paper money, medals etc==
• oldest coins in sub-continents are punch marked, mostly silver some copper
• usually of rectangular, square or round shaped. Most silver puch marked coins weighed 32 rattis.
• Metrology is measurement and arrangement of coins by weight is imp aspect of Numismatics.
• Mint towns can be idenfied where large no of coin moulds are found.

Coins Mentioned in Literary Texts

• Rig Veda words : Nishka, Nishka-griva (gold ornaments) and hiranya-pinda (gold globules) they were not coins
• Later Vedic texts mention nishka, suvarna, shatamana and pada
• Buddhist texts mentions Ashtdhyayi, Kahapana, nishka, shatamana, pada, vimshatika, trinshatika and suvarna
• Basic unit was raktika or ratti
• in South India beans like manjadi and Kalanju used as standard weight

Types of Coins

Punch Marked

• Punch marked coins of North India can be divided into
  • Taxila-Gandhara type : heavy - single punch type
  • Kosala mid ganga valley : heavy - multiple punches
  • Avanti of west India : light and single punched
  • Magadhan : light and multiple punches.
• Did not have legends. Symbols on it include geometric designs, plants, animals, sun, wheel, mountain and trees.

![[Pasted image 20230124113434.png |Taxila Gandhara type Punch Marked Coin]]

Cast Coins

• Made by pouring melted metal into a mold i.e casting.
• Uninscribed cast coins made of copper and its alloys appeared soon after punch marked coins.
  • found in Ayodhya and Kaushambi during 3rd or early 2nd century. A bronze mould was found in Eran.
  • Overlapped in time w/ punch marked

![[Pasted image 20230124113923.png |Sunga Cast coins]]

Die Struck

• image was pressed into the blank metal disc are mostly post Mauryan
• Other early Indian coin types were uninscribed die-struck coins mostly in copper and rarely in silver found in Ujjain and Taxila and were minted around 4th century BC.

Post Mauryan Coinage

• Indo Greek coins were die-struck during 2nd/1st century BC
  • usually round few were square or rectangular
  • ==Mostly silver few in copper, billon, nickel and lead==
  • Bilingual + bi script coins were issued w/ obverse in Greek and Reverse in Prakrit usually in Kharoshthi script and rarely in Brahmi.
• Kushana coins were ==mostly made of Gold, their silver coins are rare.==
  • also issued many copper coins of low denominational value, showing wide spread of money economy
  • Coins had dieties belonging to all religion and pantheons.
• Non Monarchial states such as Malavas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas etc issued cast or die struck coins called janapada. Have ‘gana’ in their coins.
• Coins with words Negama and pancha Negama meant that they were issued by merchant guilds were found in Taxila. Some have names of cities.
• Satvahana rulers issued ==copper and silver coins along with low denominational coins made of lead and potin.==
  • Their coins were coins were die-struck and some were cast coins
  • Legends were in Prakrti language and Brahmi script. But portrait coins used Dravidian language and Brahmi script
• Post Satvahana coins were issued by Ikshvakus, Shalankayana and Vishnukundin kings were in Lead, Copper. Later the Traikutakas and Kalachuris issued silver ones.
• W. Kshatrapa coins
  • Kshatrapa rule ==Nahapana introduced silver curreny in Nashik area==
  • Western Kshatrapas coins give dates in Shaka era.
  • Nahapana coins based on Indo Greek silver drachms, obverse had portrait w/ legend in Greek; reverse had dynatic emblem of Thuderbol and arrow.
• South India
  • Coins with legend Valuti have been assigned to the Pandyas
  • Silver coins legend Makkotai, Kuttuvan Kotai and Kollippurai have been associated with Chera kings.
  • Chera symbols on coins were double fish and tiger and bow and arrow
  • Coins with lion and bull motif have been associated with Pallavas
  • Tiger crest is emblem of Chola coins
• Gupta Coins
  • Gupta Kings issued well executed die struck gold coins
  • Samduragupta and Kumaragupta I had issued coins showing them playing Vina
  • Reverse of Gupta coins have religious symbols.
  • Their purity of gold decreases in later part of Skandagupta’s reign
  • Some Gupta coins give regnal years of Kings
  • Coins showing Marriage of Chandragupta I’s marrigae to Lichchavi princess.
  • Helped prove Ramgupta ruled b/w Samudragupta and Chandragupta II.
  • SG coins have him as archer and w/ battleaze and also playing vina.
• Coinage during early medieval period
• Decline in aethitic quality of coins from early medieval period. John Deyell says no decline in volume.
• Kashmir Hundikas and cowries were popular.
• Billon coins circulated in GP kingdom, cowries were also popular during their rules.
• Copper coins minted by Arab governors.
• Kings of Bengal viz Shashanka issued gold coins, Pala-Sena coins have not been identified. Silver coins called Harikela circulated from 7-13th century.
• Gold and Silver by Chalukyas of Badami which was followed by gap of 3 centuries and then revival under later Chalukyas.
• Kadambas of Goa and Shilaharas of West Deccan issued coins.

Numismatics as Source to Construct History

• Imp part of Monetary History -> imp for exchange and trade info/ Economic history.
• Give info of language and script.
• Debasement of coins could also be used as response to inc in demand per Deyell.
• Need to account for out circulation of coins beyond the border of kingdoms.
• Numismatic evidence is especially important source of political history b/w 200 BC and 300 CE
• Coins of Kshaharata ruler Nahapana was counter struck by Satvahana rulers /Gautamiputra Satkarni and Shiva Satkarni
• Most coin moulds were of the Kushana period, disappeared after post Gupta.
• Especially important to construct Indo-Greek history.
• ==Guptas Issues largest no of gold coins.==
• Balarama and Krishna depicted in Indo Greek kings such as Agathocles.

Monuments

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• Megaliths such as dolmens, menhirs etc are considered as monuments.
• Buildings such as temples, statues, Stupas, Viharas, Monasteries etc.

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PYQs

1. “Reconstruction of Early Indian history is hardly possible without the help of inscriptions and coins.” Discuss. [2007, 60m]

Answer

• ! Approach should be mentioning the importance of inscriptions and coins as sources of History. Then important inscriptions and numismatics evidences be brought that have been used as a source of History.

The reconstruction of early Indian history is an important aspect of understanding the culture and traditions of the people inhabiting the Indian subcontinent. It is an arduous task to piece together the history of the region, especially when there is a lack of written sources. In such cases, inscriptions and coins prove to be invaluable sources for the reconstruction of early Indian history.

Inscriptions are some of the oldest sources of history and are usually found on stone or metal surfaces. These inscriptions provide valuable information about the rulers and their reigns, the socio-economic conditions of the time, and other aspects of the culture of the people inhabiting the region. Inscriptions also provide evidence of the religious and political beliefs of the people, as well as the various conflicts that occurred during that period for example the counterstruck coins of Nahapana by Gautamiputra Satkarni found in Nashik region.

Coins are another important source of history. Coins are usually made of metal and contain images, symbols, and inscriptions that provide information about the rulers, their reigns, and the socio-economic conditions of the time. For example the decreased gold coins from Skandagupta reign show decline in overall socio-economic prosperity in the region. Coins also provide evidence of the political and religious beliefs of the people, as well as the various conflicts that occurred during that period.

Some of the important inscriptions and coins that have been used as sources to construct early Indian history include the Ashoka inscriptions, the Junagarh inscription, the Hathigumpha inscription, the Mathura inscriptions, the Gupta coins, the Satavahana coins, the Kushana coins, and the coins from Mahajanpada period.

The Ashoka inscriptions are a series of edicts issued by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in the third century BC. These inscriptions provide valuable information about the reign of Ashoka and his policies. The Junagarh inscription is an inscription found in Junagarh, Gujarat and is believed to be from the fifth century AD. This inscription gives information about the reign of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II.

The Hathigumpha inscription is an inscription found in the Udayagiri caves in Odisha and is believed to be from the first century BC. This inscription provides information about the reign of the Kalinga king Kharavela and his genealogy. The Mathura inscriptions are a series of inscriptions found in Mathura and are believed to be from the first century AD. These inscriptions provide information about the socio-economic and religious conditions of the time.

The Gupta coins are a series of coins issued by the Gupta dynasty in the fourth century AD. These coins provide information about the reign of the Gupta emperors and the socio-economic conditions of the time. The Satavahana coins are a series of coins issued by the Satavahana dynasty in the first century AD. These coins provide information about the reign of the Satavahana rulers and the socio-economic conditions of the time.

The coins issued by the Kushana dynasty in the first century AD provide information about the reign of the Kushana rulers and the socio-economic, religious conditions of the time.

1. On the basis of contemporary sources assess the nature of banking and usury in ancient India. [2013, 15m]

• SSH material answer from page 28
• Vedic period (between 1500 B.C. and 1000 B.C.) in which the kusidin (usurer) is mentioned
• Mauryan Period Adesha for loan
• coins with words Negama and pancha Negama meant that they
• Buddhist Jataka denounces Usury, mentions about lending money
• Arhtashastra info about interest on various types of loans
• Dharmashastra - caste imp factor in money lending, profession of vaishyas
• Manusmriti - approved line of Business, higher ROI for Shudras, lending above mentioned rate is sin

Answer

Banking and usury in ancient India were a complex and varied phenomenon, with evidence of both practices appearing in various historical sources. Banking in ancient India is evidenced by references to the use of coins and metal currency, as well as the practice of lending and borrowing money. Usury, meanwhile, is evidenced by the Arthashastra, a treatise written by the ancient Indian economist Kautilya, which outlines the various methods and rules of usury.

The use of coins and metal currency was common in ancient India, with references to such practices appearing in the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and other ancient Indian texts. The Mahabharata, for example, refers to coins made of gold, silver, and copper, which were used to purchase goods and services. So does ancient Indian texts such as the Vedas, Buddist texts like the Tipitakas and Jatakas. These coins were minted by the kings of ancient India, and were widely accepted as a form of currency.

The practice of lending and borrowing money was also common in ancient India. In the Mahabharata, for instance, the Pandavas borrow money from the Kauravas in order to pay for their own wedding expenses. This suggests that lending and borrowing money was a common practice in ancient India.

Usury, meanwhile, is evidenced by the Arthashastra, which outlines various methods and rules of usury. According to the Arthashastra, usury was practiced in ancient India in order to generate wealth and increase the wealth of the lender. The Arthashastra states that usury should not exceed 12% per annum, and that the lender should not charge more than the amount borrowed. Arthashastra also mentions about the different interests to be charged on different types of loans.

As per Dharmashastra, caste was an important factor to be considered in Money Lending. It has been sanctioned as one of the occupations of Vaishyas. Buddhist Jatakas on the other hand have denounced usury. Manusmriti approves usury against Shudras but lending above the sanctioned rate was considered a sin.

Thus Banking and usury though widely practiced was applied in different ways to different sections of society.

1. Art and culture are reflected to a far greater extent than political history in the epigraphic sources. Comment. [2017, 15 Marks]

• Refer ANKI : Temple Sites, Cave Sites, Buddhist sites, Jaina sites, Hindu Temples and Caves, Inscriptions Sites.

Answer

Epigraphic sources, such as inscriptions found on monuments, are one of the most important sources for the study of Indian history. Epigraphy provides researchers with insights into the arrangements of pre-modern Indian societies, including the development of political, social, and economic structures, as well as the emergence of religious practices.

This is particularly true in India where a number of epigraphic sources, such as copper-plate grants, inscriptions at temples and monuments, and manuscripts provide deep insights into the country’s history. Art and culture are reflected in the epigraphic sources in India more than political history. Historians contend that the great majority of epigraphic sources in India consist of religious texts and donations granted to temples, which reveal the presence of various religious practices and culture in the subcontinent.

For example, inscriptions at the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, reveal the patronage of the Nayaka rulers and their intellectual achievements in the fields of literature, art, music and dance, which helped to shape the culture of the region. In addition, inscriptions at the Ellora Caves, Maharashtra, provide insight into the patronage of the Chalukyan dynasty and the development of Hindu, Buddhist and Jain architecture in Maharashtra.

Furthermore, the development of Sanskrit and vernacular languages and literature is also revealed through epigraphic sources. For instance, a large number of inscriptions in Sanskrit and Tamil were found at the temple of Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, which provide insights into the philosophy and theology of Shaivism, as well as works of art, music and literature of the period.

Overall, epigraphic sources in India mainly reflect cultural and religious developments, rather than political history. The examples given above demonstrate the immense insight into Indian culture and history that can be gained from epigraphic sources, providing evidence of the importance of art and culture in India before the rise of modern nation states.

1. Describe the distinguishing features of important archaeological cultures of the Indian subcontinent datable between c. 2000 B.C. and c. 500 B.C. [1995, 60m]

Answer

The Indian subcontinent has a rich archaeological heritage, with a variety of pottery cultures spanning the period from c. 2000 B.C. to c. 500 B.C. These cultures are distinguished by their unique pottery styles, which can be identified by the shapes, decorations, and materials used.

The Harappan culture (c. 2500-1700 B.C.) is one of the most well-known of these cultures, and is identified by its distinctive red and black pottery. This pottery is typically decorated with geometric patterns, and is made from a variety of materials including terracotta, shell, and stone.

Black and red ware (BRW) culture: This type of pottery was characterized by the use of a black and red slip on the surface of the pottery. This culture is associated with the early Vedic period and is found in northern and central India.

The Painted Grey Ware culture (c. 1200-600 B.C.) is another important pottery culture of the Indian subcontinent. This culture is distinguished by its distinctive grey pottery, which is decorated with black and white geometric patterns. This pottery is typically made from clay, and is often found in burials.

The Northern Black Polished Ware culture (c. 1000-500 B.C.) is another important pottery culture of the Indian subcontinent. This culture is identified by its black polished pottery, which is decorated with geometric and floral motifs. This pottery is typically made from clay, and is often found in burials.

Megalithic culture: This type of pottery is associated with the burials of the megalithic period and is characterized by coarse and undecorated pottery. It is found in southern and western India.

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Footnotes

1. https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/mahabharata-much-older-say-asi-archaeologists/articleshow/71658119.cms?from=mdr ↩

2. https://sci-hub.se/https://www.jstor.org/stable/595878 ↩

3. https://www.jstor.org/stable/44303936 ↩

4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velurpalaiyam_plates#:~:text=The%20Velurpalaiyam%20plates%20of%20Nandivarman> ↩