Social Reform Movements Viz Sati, Widow Remarriage, Child Marriage Etc.

Social Reform Movements Viz Sati, Widow Remarriage, Child Marriage Etc.

2020-04-27 15:09:04

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1.1 Overview of Reform Movts

• Features like Rationalism, Religious, Universalism, Humanism gave social reforms an ideological unity.
• Proponents were Akshay Kumar Dutt, Raja Rammohun Roy, Swami Vivekananda and Syed Ahmed Khan.
• Reformist movements were Brahmo Samaj, Prarthana Samaj and Aligarh Movement.
• Revivalist Arya Samaj and Deoband Movement they relied more on tradition and appealed the lost purity of the religion.
• Various Social reformers of the time were Jyotiba Phule, Gopalhari Deshmukh, K.T. Telang, B .M. Malabari, D.K. Karve, Sri Narayana Guru, E.V. Ramaswami Naicker and B.R. Ambedkar

1.2 Social Reform Involving Women

1.2.1 Sati

• abolition of Sati by the Regulation of 1829 in Bengal, extended to Madras and Bombay in 1830 .

1.2.2 Female Infanticide

• The Bengal regulations of 1795 and 1804 declared infanticide illegal and equivalent to murder.
• Act in 1870 made registration of all babies compulsory.

1.2.3 Widow Remarriage

• Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-91) efforts saw the legalisation of Widow remarriage by the Remarriage Act of 1856 .
• Jagannath Shankar Seth and Bhau Daji were among the active promoters of girls’ schools in Maharashtra.
• $ Vishnu Shastri Pandit founded the Widow Remarriage Association in the 1850s.
• $ Karsondas Mulji started the Satya Prakash in Gujarati in 1852 to advocate widow remarriage .
• Some proponents of widow remarriage were D.K.Karve, Veerasalingam Pantulu, B.M.Malabari, Narmadashankar Labhshankar Dave, Justice Govind Mahadeo Ranade, K. Natarajan.
• DK Karve himself married a widow in 1893 and became secy of Widow Remarriage Association.
  • He opened a widow home in Poona by providing them with facilities for vocational training.
  • Set up an Indian ==Women’s University at Bombay in 1916==.

1.2.4 Child Marriage

• Native Marriage Act (or Civil Marriage Act) of 1872 prohibited child marriage.
• Age of Consent Act of 1891 forbade marriage of girls under 12.
• Sarda Act of 1930 further pushed the marriage age to 18 for boys and 14 for girls.

1.2.5 Female Education

• Christian missionaries were the first to set up institutions for the education of girls in India.
• The Calcutta Female Juvenile Society was founded in 1819 .
• The Bethune School, founded by J.E.D. Bethune, president of the Council of Education in Calcutta in 1849 .
• Charles [[5.1 State of Indigenous education, its dislocation#Woods Despatch of 1854|Wood’s Despatch]] on Education in 1854 laid great stress on the need for female education.
• Indian Womens University was set up by D.K. Karve in 1916 same year Lady Hardinge Medical college was also opened.
• Sarojini Naidu became the president of the Indian National Congress in 1925
• 1910, Sarla Devi Chaudhurani convened the first meeting of the Bharat Stree Mahamandal in Allahabad.
• Ramabai Ranade founded the Ladies Social Conference (Bharat Mahila Parishad) in 1904 under the parent organisation National Social Conference at Bombay.
• Pandita Ramabai Saraswati founded the Arya Mahila Samaj which was institutional in setting up Lady Dufferin College.
• India’s first lady barrister - Cornelia Sarabji.
• In 1925 , the National Council of Women in India, a national branch of the International Council of Women, was formed. Mehribai Tata played a vital role in its formation and advancement.
• All India Women’s Conference (AIWC), was founded by Margaret Cousins in 1927. 1st session was held in Ferguson College in Pune.

1.3 Social Reform Involving ‘lower Caste’

• Mahatma Gandhi in 1932 founded the All India Harijan Sangh.

1.3.1 Jyotiba Phule

• In Maharashtra, Jyotiba Phule, born in a low caste family, led a movement against the brahminical domination of Hindu society.
• Jyotiba Phule (1827-1890) founded the Satyashodhak Samaj (Truth Seekers’ Society) in 1873 its leadership coming from the backward classes.
• Main aims were social service and spreading education.
• His works include Sarvajanik Satyadharma and Gulamgiri (1873), this book was dedicated to all Americans who had fought to free the slaves in the Americal Civil War.
• schools for ‘lower caste’ ex Mahar and Mang.
• 1863 home for pregnant Brahmin widows to give birth.
• orphanage to avoid infanticide.
• 1868 common bathing tank outside house, Satyashodhak Samaj 1873.

1.3.2 Bhimrao Ambedkar

• Babasaheb Ambedkar, fought against upper caste tyranny throughout his life. He organised the All India Scheduled Castes Federation and founded the All India Depressed Classes Association.
• Led Mahad Satyagraha in March 1927 to challenge the regressive customs of the caste Hindus.
  • Was led for using the public bath tank by the untouchables. March 20 is celebrated as Social Empowerment day in India.
• Established the Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha in 1924 to highlight the difficulties and grievances of the dalits before the government. Motto ‘Educate, Agitate and Organise’.

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• The non-brahmins organised Self-Respect movement led by E.V. Namaswamy Naicker.
• Sri Narayana Guru in Kerala led a lifelong struggle against upper caste domination, his disciple was Sahadaran Ayyapan.
  • started the Sree Narayana Guru Dharma Paripalana (SNDP) Movement popular among Ezhavas of Kerala.
  • Aruvippuram movement and worked for the upliftment of the backward classes.

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• Vokkaliga Sangha in Mysore launched an anti-brahmin movement in 1905.
• Justice Movement by C.N.Mudaliar, T.M. Nair and P. Tyagaraja to secure jobs and representation for the non-brahmins in the legislature.

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• later the Madras Presidency Association was formed to demand separate representation for lower castes.

1.3.3 Temple Entry Movement

• T.K. Madhavan, social reformer and editor of Deshabhimani, in Travancore.
• Vaikom centre of agitation.
• K.P.Kesava led the Vaikom Satyagraha to open Hindu temples and roads to the untouchables.
• Later K Kelappan and poet Subramaniyam Tirumambu, P Krishna, AK Gopalan participated.
• C Rajagopalachari also participated in similar movement in Tamil Nadu.

1.4 Social Reform Association

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• Paramahansa Mandali 
  • @ Founded in 1849 in Maharashtra by Dadoba Pandurang , Mehtaji Durgaram and others
  • began as a secret society ideology closely linked to Manav Dharma Sabha.
• Servants of India Society
  • @ was founded by Gopal Krishna Gokhale (1866-1915) with the help of M.G. Ranade.
  • to train missionaries and promote true interests of Indian people.
  • Also published Hitavada in 1911.
• Narayan Malhar Joshi founded the Social Service League in Bombay aim was to secure better life and work for the people.
  • @ also founded the All India Trade Union Congress in 1920.
• Swami Vivekananda after Ramakrishna’s death founded the Ramakrishna Mission in 1897 .
  • spread the message of Vendanta and carry philanthropic and charitable work.
  • preacher of neo Hinduism , teachings of Upanishads and Gita.
  • to bridge the gap b/w spirituality and day to day life.
  • Parliament of Religions held at Chicago in 1893.
• Arya Samaj
  • was founded by Dayananda Saraswati in 1875 in Bombay.
  • Satyarth Prakash.
  • established the D.A.V schools.
  • slogan was  ‘Back to the Vedas’.
• Behramji M. Malabari (1853-1912)
  • founded the Seva Sadan in 1908 w/ Diwan Dayaram Gidumal against child marriage and widow remarriage.
  • acquired and edited the Indian Spectator.
• Dev Samaj 
  • @ founded in 1887 at Lahore by Shiv Narayan Agnihotri.
  • reform society emphasised the eternity of the soul and the supremeacy of the guru.
  • teaching were compiled in a book Deva Shastra.
• Dharma Sabha : Radhakant Deb founded this sabha in 1830 was an orthodox society.
• $ Bharat Dharma Mahamandala : all-India organisation of the orthodox educated Hindus opposed reformists and revivalists like Arya Samaj and Theosophists.
  • Was foudned by Deen Dayal Sharma in 1887. He also founded the Hindu College in Delhi in 1899.
  • Madan Mohan Malaviya was a prominent figure.
• Indian Social Conference founded by M.G. Ranade and Raghunath Rao.

1.5 Social Reform among Muslims, Sikhs and Parsis.

Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898) founded the Aligarh Movement

• better education and employment opportunities.

• wrote in the magazine Tahdhib ul Akhlaq.

  Rahnumai Mazdayasnan Sabha Parsi

• Reform Movement 1851 had Naoroji Furdonji , Dadabhai Naoroji, K.R. Cama and S.S. Bengalee as its leaders

• spread by newspaper Rast Goftar (Truth-Teller).

Singh Sabha Movement

• was founded at Amritsar in 1873 make available modern western education to the Sikhs and counter the proselytising activities.
• Akali movement (also known as Gurudwara Reform Movement)
  • was an offshoot of the Singh Sabha Movement aimed at liberating the Sikh gurudwaras from corrupt  Udasi mahants.
• Gov passed the Sikh Gurudwaras Act in 1922 gave control to SGPC.
• Theosophical Society
  • Madame H.P. Blavatsky (1831- 1891) and Colonel M.S. Olcott ,
  • Theosophical Society in New York City, United States in 1875.
  • In 1882, they shifted their headquarters to Adyar.
  • @ Annie Beasant became its president in 1907.
  • @ Wanted to propagate the ideas of Greek and Neo Platonic philosophers. It also encompasses philosophies from other religions such as Vedanta, Mahayana Buddhism etc.
  • It acted as bridge b/w East and West and emphaised on the commonality of Human culture.

1.6 Social Reform Movements in India

• not exclusively religious in character
• strongly humanist, salvation was not their agenda
• But Raja Rammohan Roy was ready to accept otherworldliness for its utilitarian value.
• Religious reform was a prerequisite to social reform.
• Social obscurantism and Superstition was rife.
• Animal sacrifice, physical torture, Idolatry and polytheism were rampant.
• The birth of a girl was seen as inauspicious, so was her post puberty marriage and widowhood.
• Polygamy, Sati etc were prevalent and rampant.
• Caste system had hampered social mobility, fostered social divisions and hampered individual initiative.
• Untouchability was also prevalent.
• Rationalism and Religious universalism were the 2 main criteria which informed reform movt.
• Ambit of reform was particularistic but their perspective was universalistic.
• 19th century also saw the

Views

• JN Farquhar has mentioned the stimulating forces as being exclusively western namely English education and literature, Christianity, Oriental research, European Science and philosophy etc.
• Charles Heimsath has attributed to methods or organisation of socio-religious movements along with ideas to the west.
• Sushobhan Sarkar says that foreign conquest was a hindrance rather than help towards people’s regeneration.

• The reform movements were integral to the emerging anti colonial movement and a response to colonial intrusion.
• Features of early reform movements were :
  • Was confined by and large to one region or another.
  • Confined to a particular religion or caste.
  • Emerged at different times in different parts viz in Bengal in beginning of 19th century in Kerala in end of 19th century.

1.6.1 Scope

• Not purely religious but socio and politico religious
• Major social problems taken up were among other casteism, education etc.
• Idolatry, Polytheism, Religious superstition, Exploitation by priests were other issues

1.6.2 Methods of Reform

1.6.2.1 Reform from within

• Initiated by Ram Mohan Roy
• Change to be effective must begin from society itself.
• By creating a sense of awareness among people
• Through debates, discussions, publishing tracts
• Ex Roy’s campaign against sati, Vidyasagar’s against widow remarriage, BM Malabari against age of consent

1.6.2.2 Reform through Legislation

• Advocates were Keshub Chandra Sen, MG Ranade in Maharashtra, Viresalingam Pantulu in Andhra
• Failed to understand that British will intervene only if it is against their interest
• Also failed to under that the role of legislation would be limited because of lack of sanction among people in a colonial society

1.6.2.3 Reform through Symbol of Change

• Through non-conformist individual activity
• Ex the Derozians or Young Bengal members included D Mukherjee, RG Ghose, KM Banerji. ^96cace
• Had uncompromising rational attitude towards social problems
• they failed to draw upon the cultural tradition of Indian society

1.6.2.4 Reform through Social Work

• Vidyasagar, Arya Samaj, Ramkrishna mission
• They did not realise that reform on the social and intellectual level is linked with the overall character of the society.

1.6.3 Ideas of Reform

1.6.3.1 Rationalism

• @ Young Bengal, Akshay Kumar Dutta tried to understand social phenomena in terms of physical and mechanical process.
• Socio Religious practices evaluated from a standpoint of social utility
• There was less dependence on religion in Maharashtra led by Gopal Hari Deshmukh.

1.6.3.2 Universalism

• @ Belief in unity of godhead and emphasis on religions being essentially the same
• Ram Mohun Roy defended the monotheism for Vedas and Unitarianism of Christianity and criticised polytheism of Hinduism and Trinitarianism of Christianity.
• Syyed Ahmad Khan and Keshub Chandra sen were other proponents.
• It influenced political and social outlook of the reformers. They did not discriminate b/w Hindu and Muslims in humanitarian activities.
• Universalism was seen as an attempt to content with the gaining religious particularism.

1.6.4 Significance

• It stood for democratisation of society.
• Removal of superstition and abhorrent custom.
• Spread of enlightenment.
• Development of modern outlook.
• Among the Muslims western education, liberal interpretation of Islam, opposing polygamy and Jihad.
• Among the Hindus it was against caste system, polytheism, idolatry, oppression of women.

1.6.5 Weakness and Limitation

• Primarily urban except Arya Samaj
• Limited to upper class and castes
• Favourable view of the British rule

1.7 Revivalism

• Lex Loci Act (the Act proposed in 1845 and passed in 1850 provided the right to inherit ancestral property to Hindu converts to Christianity)

Features of the revivalist movements were :

• Creation of an alternate cultural-ideological system
• Regeneration of traditional institutions

Certain Characteristics of Revivalist movements were :

• Alternate system of education
• Cultivation of vernacular language
• Emphasis on Indian food and dress
• Defence of religion
• Revitalise the Indian system of medicine
• Probe potentialities of pre-colonial technology
• Reconstruct traditional knowledge

1.7.1 Hindu Revivalism

• Extremists mostly supporters of Revivalism

• inspiration from cultural, intellectual movt

• Reform was seen as submission to western concept per Chris Heimsath led to growth of anti-reformism

  Partha Chatterjee : appropriated, sanitised and classicized popular tradition into national religious discourse

• Middle class formed a new religion based on Bhakti, open rejection of values imposed by western education.

• Anandmath By Bankim Chandra Chattopadhya -> Krishna as modern nation builder.

• Bande Mataram -> IN as goddess.

• Brahmo Samaj weakened after 1870s, Ramakrishna-Vivekanand movt grew.

• Ramakrishna not revivalist, Vivekananda gave the movt a missionary zeal - followed vedantic teaching, orthodox rituals.

• In Maharashtra : RanadeTelang school of reform.

• Rukhmabai case : She refused to recognise conjugal rights since she was married in her infancy. #important

  • Hindu orthodoxy asserted patriarchy reformists like Malabari formed the Rukhmabai Defence Comm #PrelimsPYQ ^zlyecx
  • It ultimately led to the Age of Consent Act 1891 that raised age from 10 - 12 as minimum marriageable age.

• Bal Gangadhar Tilak led through the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, opposed gov intervention in marriage customs etc.

Views

Tanika Sarkar : Hindu womans body became site for struggle for the first time war on the very fundamental of an alien power knwledge sys

Mrinalini Sinha : gov took pro-reform interventionist position

Peter Van der Veer : reformist Arya samaj and their orthodoxical critiz had common ground in their defence of Hindu Nation

Kenneth Jones : aggressiveness inc as result of Christian missionary activities

• Cow protection movt 1893, 1st started by Kuka 1871, Gaurakshini Sabha, gradually became communal issue.
• John Mclane : showed expanded sense of community membership.
• Subsided after 1893 because new issues required communal unity.
• Gyanendra Pandey : did not indicate complete communal polarisation of IN society.
• Hindi-Urdu contro NWFP, Nagri Pracharani Sabha 1893, Bharatendu Harsihchandra, MM Malviya, Anjuman Taraqqi e Urdu.
• Political recruitment of Ganapati, bridge Brahman non-Brahman gap, Shijavi fest, disseminate revolutionary ideas.
• Vibhuti Sangam 1820s, Dharma Sabha 1840s, Theosophical Movt in Madras.
• Syndicated Hinduism construction of Western Hermeneutics, 1881 census people mentioned caste/sect as religion.
• Provided ‘viable cultural foundation of nationhood’.
• Chritophe Jaffrelot : ‘largely reflected Brahmanical view of high caste reformers’.
• Alienated Muslims, Singh Sabha movt by Sikhs.

PYQs

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The social reform movements in India including Sati, widow remarriage, child marriage etc.; The contribution of Indian renaissance to the growth of modern India

1. Examine the main trends in social reform and social change in India between 1829 and 1929. [1979, 60m]

2. Review the main trends in the Social Movements in India from 1900 to 1947 with particular reference to the changing position of women in the country. [1984, 60m]

3. “These religion-reform movements were national in content but religious in form. It was in the later stages of our national existence, that nationalism found exclusively or predominantly secular forms.” Comment. [1985, 20m]

4. To what extent did the socio-religious movements contribute to the emancipation of women in the 19th century? [1993, 60m]

5. “Widow Remarriage Act was, in many ways, a logical sequel to the abolition of Sati.” Comment. [1994, 20m]

6. “The religious reform movements of the 19th century were endeavours to recast the old religion (Hinduism) into a new form suited to meet the needs of the new society.” Comment. [1996, 20m]

7. “The religious reform movements of the 19th century were endeavours to recast the old religion (Hinduism) into a new form suited to meet the needs of the new society.” Comment. [1996, 20m]

8. The 19th century Indian renaissance was both an acceptance and rejection of western values. Do you agree? [1997, 60m]

9. Discuss the important social reform legislation passed in the 19th century and elucidate the reaction of Indian leaders to the measures adopted. [2000, 60m]

10. “The national democratic awakening of the Indian people found expression also in the religious sphere.” Comment. [2005, 20m]

11. “There is no other instance in the history of mankind of a poet and philosopher working such as a miracle in shaping the destiny of his people.” Comment. [2007, 20m]

12. “Of the evils which corroded Indian society in the nineteenth century were probably those which stunted its womanhood.” Comment. [2007, 20m]

13. How did social legislation in the nineteenth century improve the condition of women in India? [2009, 30m]

14. Discuss the extent to which the Indian Renaissance movement contributed towards the rise of nationalist consciousness. [2010, 30m]

15. “The first point to note is the continuing importance of religion and philosophy as vital ingredients in the modern Indian renaissance. Indeed, there is as much reason for regarding it as a reformation as there is for treating it as a renaissance.” Critically examine. [2013, 25m]

16. Swami Vivekananda opined that “we should give our ancient spirituality and culture and get in return Western Science, technology, methods of raising the standard of life, business integrity and technique of collective effort.” Critically examine. [2013, 10m]

17. “Though Sri Ramakrishna became the prophet of neo-Hinduism, he never claimed to have founded any new

Caste Movements

1. What led to the Caste Movements in Western and Southern India? How did they affect the local socio-political life? [1989, 60m]

2. Analyses the main contours of Non-Brahmin Movements in Western and South India in the nineteenth and first half of the twentieth century. [1991, 60m]

3. Trace the course and comment on the character of caste movements in south India in the 20th century. How far was their object achieved? [1995, 60m]

4. How did Dr. B.R. Ambedkar try to seek a political solution to the problem of caste in India? [2016, 10m]

5. “Sri Narayana guru’s was a major intervention in the social reform movement from a subaltern perspective.” Critically examine. [2017, 10m]

6. Examine the impact of British rule on Indian Society in the 19th Century. [2004, 60m]