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Religion

Religion

Section titled “Religion”

2020-04-27 12:15:22

Buddhism in Early Medieval India

Section titled “Buddhism in Early Medieval India”
  • @ Xuanxang mentions flourishing monasteries in the Magadha area also mentions ruined ones
    • @ Skilful construction, having 3 stories towers on each side, painted doors, low walls, monk cells were plain
  • Yi Jing mentions Bodh Gaya and Tilodaka
  • Chachnama mentions Buddhism flourishing in Sindh, Kashmir, Odisha etc
  • B images of this period shows variety in iconography signifying popularity of devotional worship
  • Bodhicharyavatara of Shantideva describes Mahayana rites of worship

Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana or Mantrayana Emerged Combined Ritual, Magic and Meditation

Section titled “Tantric Buddhism or Vajrayana or Mantrayana Emerged Combined Ritual, Magic and Meditation”
  • Manjushrimulkalpa and Guhyasamaja early texts of it
  • Mantras were recited, female deities had imp place ex Tara
  • exponents called as Tantra guru or Siddhas
  • Hevajra Tantra focused on using sexual energy
  • Sahajyana advocated neither rituals nor mantras importance on salvation, popular in Bengal
  • Became limited geographically, politically and culturally
    • Due to rise of Hindu cults - could not maintain distinct identity
    • Turkish invasion
    • Tantric influences brought in negative changes
    • Rise of Brahmanical philosophers viz Shankaracharya

Jainism

Section titled “Jainism”
  • Pop in Raj, Guj, Bengal, Orissa, MP, UP and Karnataka
  • $ Xuanxang : Digambara was more popular than shvetambara
  • Various philosophers of this time were Akalanka, Haribhadra and Vidhyananda
  • Adi Purana of Jinasena and Gunabhadra outlined set to rituals similar to Brahmanical for ex they forbade shudras from higher religious practices including Monkhood
  • Dilwara temples of Mount Abu, Chittor in Rajasthan, Deogarh and Mathura in UP were some imp centres
  • Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II begins with the invocation of Jinasena

Forms and Feature of Religion

Section titled “Forms and Feature of Religion”

2020-04-27 12:15:31

Hindu Cults

Section titled “Hindu Cults”
  • Vaishnava, Shaiva and Shakta cults were most popular
  • Increase in the spread of temples with varied representations of deities
  • Sectarian epithets became common in royal inscriptions
  • Part of monolatory - belief in one supreme god without denying the existence of other gods

Shakti Cult

Section titled “Shakti Cult”
  • Markandeya Purana contains verses about it, referred to as Devi Mahatmya as vanquishing demon Mahishasura
    • @ Narayani Stuti speaks of her energy sustaining entire universe, nine matrika forms, other forms of her manifestations viz Lakshmi, Sarasvati, Narayani, Katyayani etc
    • @ Durga Saptashati - talks about killing of Mahishasura - Mahishasuramardini
    • Represented in Virupaksha temple at Aihole
  • Yoginis were either attendants or manifestations of Durga
  • Multi armed Durga images occur in large numbers
  • Nishumbhamardani occur in reliefs of Chola temples
  • Matrika images found in Orissa near Jajpur
  • Inscriptions in Assam mention Kamakhya ^65f4df

Kunal Chakraborti mention the cultural synthesis b/w Brahmanism and strong tradition of Goddess worship in Bengal

  • Matsya Purana and Kurma Purana mentions their various names
  • Kalika Purana composed in Assam/Bengal
    • Shanta form has erotic character
    • Rudra form is worshipped in cremation grounds
    • ! Right method of worship is through normal rituals
    • ! Left method through alcohol, meat, sexual rites
  • Various places of worship have been mentioned in these texts

Tamil and Devotional Cult

Section titled “Tamil and Devotional Cult”

2020-04-27 12:15 :43

Introduction

Section titled “Introduction”
  • $ Roots can be traces to late Sangam poetry, paripatal and pattupattu.
  • $ Murugan was an imp god during early days - he is specified to live in certain places and people are urged to visit there.
  • $ Akam, Puram and heroic poems called Patan also show tinges of Bhakti also have personal tone.
  • Saints themselves are worshipped since Chola period.
  • Male saints were not ascetics but lived as part of their society.
  • @ Poets visualised their gods as friend, mother, father, master, teacher, bridegroom etc.
  • Bhakti saints came from various social backgrounds
  • Shaiva saint Nadanar, Vaishnava saint Tiruppan Alvar are described as untouchables - Bhakti was open to all sections of society.
  • Periyapuram has negative portrayal of women.

Nayanars

Section titled “Nayanars”
  • Nayanars were a group of 63 saints devoted to Lord Shiva who lived during the 6th to 8th centuries CE.
  • Male saints took feminine voice ex Manikkavachakar, Nammalvar
  • @ Nayanmar is an honorific title they described themselves as atiyar or tontar (slaves). There were 62 famous Nayanmars
    • Tiruttondar Tokai by Sundarar
    • Nambi Andar Nambi worte Tiruttondar Tiruvantai , Periyapuranam
  • Appar was a famous saint.
  • Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Mangaiyarkkarasiyar and Isainaniyar were women Nayanmars.

Alvars

Section titled “Alvars”
  • $ Nathamuni in Nalariya Divya Prabandhanam has collected various hymns
  • First Major hagiography was Divyasuricharitam by Garudavahana
  • Often depicted as a Lover-beloved relationship, mother-child relationship
  • Tiruvantatis show earliest stage of Alvar religiosity
  • Nammavalar’s poems - lover-beloved relation,
  • Andal’s poems had erotic expressions - only woman alvar

Growth of Bhakti

Section titled “Growth of Bhakti”

2020-04-27 12:15:54

Emergence of Bhakti Movement

Section titled “Emergence of Bhakti Movement”

Political Factors

Section titled “Political Factors”
  • No traction before Turkish conquest was because of Rajput-Brahman alliance.
  • Advent of Islam paved the way for growth of non-confirmist movement since the Brahmanical domination was shattered had lost their temple wealth and state patronage.

Socio-Economic Factors

Section titled “Socio-Economic Factors”
  • represented the sentiments of common people against feudal oppression.
  • can be seen in the poems of saints like Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya and Tulsidas.
  • @ it did not represent the interest of the peasantry against the state.
  • @ continued to subscribe to the basic principles of orthodox Brahmanism and did not call for the overthrow of the exiting social order.
  • This is why it was different from the European Protestant Movement.

Economic and Social Changes

Section titled “Economic and Social Changes”
  • agricultural surplus extraction by the state - concentration of wealth in the hands of few
  • Demand for luxurious goods increased leading to the rise of urban artisans
  • Who later patronised these saints attracted by their egalitarian and monotheistic views.
  • Ex Khatris of Punjab.
  • The popularity extended from Urban artisans to Peasants as well ex the Jats.

Bhakti Movement :

Section titled “Bhakti Movement :”
  • means devotional surrender and can be traced to Brahmanical and Buddist tradition in the 7th-10th century.
  • was revived the the 11th century
  • Seed of it can be traced in the Vedas in which some hymns have a wonder before divinity.
  • Also found in Upanishads as worship of personal gods such as Brahma, Vishnu, Mahesh.
  • Post Mauryan Bhagvata movt had elements of B and the rise of Pashupat school.
  • Worship of Avalokita in Buddhism.
  • Bhakti in Ramayana and Mahabharata was considered 1 of 3 paths to salvation.
  • 2 aspects of Bhakti.
    1. One was path of devotion based on service to God, devotee throws at the mercy of God called prapti or Surrender. Could be followed by anyone even slaves.
    2. Other was Based on pure love ie participating in the life divine. Ex Krishna, Radha and Gopis.

Bhakti Movement in South India

Section titled “Bhakti Movement in South India”
  • saiva Nayanar/Adiyars saints and Vaishnava Alvar
  • promoted religious egalitarianism, dispensed with rituals Tamil their language
  • critical of Buddhists Jains who had enjoyed privilege. This was their main attack.
  • never consciously opposed the Brahmanism or Varna system
  • lower caste still suffered from various social disabilities
  • Brahmanical rituals like idol worship, recitation of vedic mantras, pilgrimage etc still continued
  • @ Brahman dominated temples played an imp role in propagating the South Indian Bhakti movement because Bhakti was mainly against Buddhism Jainism.
  • Rulers were swayed through saints performing miracles.
  • As the movt grew popular Rulers associated them with it for their own political gains.
  • Mahendra Varman destroyed a Jain monastery.
  • Shankaracharya : Systematized the Vedanta system.
  • Ramanuja 11th century vaishnava saint gave a philosophical justification to Bhakti
    • tried to establish balance b/w orthodox Brahamaism and popular Bhakti.
  • Nimbarka : contemporary of him. His philosophy was based on the Bhagavat Purana
    • worshipped Radha and Krishna, and believed that Bhakti provided alternate avenue for the Shudras to worship
  • Ramananda and Vallabha were last known vaishnava acharyas
  • Impact of Bhakti
    • Allowed for mobility in traditional social distinctions among the Bhakti community
    • Questioned to some extent prevailing social hierarchies
    • Increased the social bounds of

DD Kosambi was an ideology well suited to the needs of feudal state - as it was a temple base movement

Section titled “Popular Bhati Movt in North India”
  • Began in 14-15th century has been considered an off shoot of the southern movt.
  • Shankara moved to North -> cultural interatction during 9th century but became mass movt in 15th century.
  • Buddhist and Jains were already ousted thus the reason for B in south was missing in N.
  • The Rajput-Brahman alliance that emerged before the arrival of turks had estd a very strict social structure so for B to suceed should have challenged this ie the privilege of Brahmanas which invited repression from their political overlords the Rajputs.
  • Did not grow as defence mechanism to save Hindu society from threat of supervision by the Turks. Since Hindus did not face immediate threat of conversion and was too strong to be affected by threat or force.
  • Janeshwar 12th cent:
    • wrote commentaries on Gita in Marathi emphasising Jnan, Karma and Bhakti.
    • Namdev was successor wrote poetry on intense love and devotion to God.
    • Disciples were from all castes Kabir who was weaver, Ravida a cobbler, Sena a barber and Sadhana a butcher.

Islam and Its Arrival

Section titled “Islam and Its Arrival”

2020-04-27 12:16:03

Arrival/Introduction

Section titled “Arrival/Introduction”
  • Connecting link b/w IN and Outside, employed as sailors, commercial agents, workers.
  • IN sciences, philosophy, literature were carried by them to west
  • & Panchatantra translated to Persian under reign of Khusrau I
  • Conquest of Siestan, Sindh, Multan - gradually shed their religious zeal settled as petty feudal chieftains
  • @ Could not make Islam a political force neither a socio-cultural 2nd pole
    • @ Influenced by high moral character of Hindus, Buddhists
  • Sindh rulers depended on non-Muslim subjects for their survival
  • Scholars taught them in IN languages, philo, astronomy, mathematics, medicine etc
  • Early governors adopted deliberate conversion make Islam dominant force which was often resisted
  • Many IN embraced due to monotheism, universal brotherhood, socio economic freedom it offered to low caste hindus.
  • Gradually Muslim religious teachers made in to Indo Gangetic plains, some settled in UP, Bihar.
  • @ Terms like Turushka, Turushka danda was used in rajput polity 9th -10th century for tax levied on muslim settlers.
  • Hindu masses tolerated newly converts.
  • $ Ibn I Asir - colony of muslims at Banaras since the days of Ghazni
  • $ Barani Mentions - mausoleum of Salar Masud at Bahraich who died fighting infidels
  • Muinnuddin Chisti came before Bo Tarain set up Khanqah in Ajmer

KA Nizami : apart from religious toleration, friendly attitude displayed by R rulers and Hindu pop economic and commercial interests of Indians were also responsible for set up of early Muslim colonies

Impact of Arrival of Islam on Society, Culture, Polity, Arts and Religion :

Section titled “Impact of Arrival of Islam on Society, Culture, Polity, Arts and Religion :”

Impact on Society

Section titled “Impact on Society”

Negative Impact

KM Panikkar : Split IN society vertically which made their assimilation difficult. Which was not the case w/ Buddhism and Jainism.

  • @ Proselytization strengthened the bond of conservatism in the orthodox cirlces.
  • Purdah system further degraded position of women in IN.
  • ! Female infanticide adopted by Hindus to avoid risk of losing their chastity to Muslims.
  • Stregthened Child marriage to avoid kidnapping of them and Sati system.
  • Slavery which was rare in society became a common sight. Many Men, Women, Children were sold as slaves.
  • Caste system became rigid since H now felt to protect their religion from forcible conversions. Strict caste rules were made.
  • Forcible conversion further degraded position of lower sections. Who were illtreated at the hand of upper sections of both M and Hindus.

Positive Impact

  • Brought concept of human equality, legal system, universal brotherhood -> led to liberal H religious movts. Which also influence Bhakti saints ex Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya.
  • Influenced the art of warfare, recreation etc. Food such as Biryani, kabab etc adopted.
  • Music influenced through instruments viz Tabla, Iranian Tambura and Sitar.
  • New Architectural means

Culture

Section titled “Culture”
  • Architecture
  • Music
  • Language ex Urdu. Persian was readily adopted by Hindus who participated in the adm of M rulers.

Polity

Section titled “Polity”
  • #todo

Arts

Section titled “Arts”
  • #todo

Religion

Section titled “Religion”
  • #todo

Sufism

Section titled “Sufism”

2020-04-27 12:16:14

  • Sufism aka tasawwuf was based on the spirit of Quaranic piety.
  • @ it accepted shariat but it did not confine their religious practice to formal adherence.
  • 10th century marked the end of domination of rationalist philosophy and formation of orthodox schools based on Quran and Hadis and around the same time Sufism rose.

Features

Section titled “Features”
  • stressed the importance of sufi path called the Tariqa establishing a direct communion with divine reality/ haqiqat.
  • @ A novice has to pass through succession of stages called maqamat and hal to experience God.
  • under strict Supervision of a shaikh, pir or murshid. Disciple was the murid.
  • organised musical recitals called sama to induces a state of ecstasy.
  • Organisation of various sililahs or orders was another feature.
  • hospice or Khanqah was a center of activities to impart training. Buddhists and Christian monastic systems played an imp role.
  • Fana meant spiritual merger of the devoted w/ God -> led to constant conflict w/ orthodox ulema.
  • Early sufis stressed on repentence - tauba, abstinence, renunciation, poverty etc.

Growth

Section titled “Growth”
  • & Meccan, Medina, basra and Kufa were early centers. They were disgusted by vulgar display of wealth and degenration of morals.
  • @ Rabia (d. 801) was a woman mystic from Basra.
  • @ Bayazid Bistani (d. 874) from Khurasan was first to employ the concept of Fana (annihilation of the self).
    • He saw the Kaba walking around him and was accused of heresy.
  • @ Al Junaid from the Abassid caliphate and Mansure al Hallaj from Baghdad were other prominent sufi.
    • Hallaj was imprisoned and executed.
    • Mansur proclaimed the doctrine of Anal Haq/ I am Truth/God which was an expression of sufi belief that unificaion w/ God was highest stage of enlightenment.
    • Their execution gave them the status of martyrdom and reputation of being pure of heart, sincere.
  • Zunni Misri of Egypt gave the concept of mustic union w/ God by a process of contemplation.
  • period saw the emergence of the Madrasa system and the Khanqah system
  • Sufis like Abu Hamid al Ghazzali tied to compromise b/w the ulema and the sufis.
  • Sufi Poetry in Persian emerged. Attar and Rumi were 2 of its most prominent exponents.
  • 3rd phase saw the formation of silsilahs after the tariqas or peculiar practices developed.
    1. ! Shaikh Shahabuddin founded the Suhrawardi silsila.
    2. ! Abdul Qadir Julani founded the Qadiri.
    3. ! Muninuddin Chisti founded Chisti and Naqshabandi silsilas.
  • Wandering Nath Panthi Yodis from Peshawar familiarised Sufis w/ practice of hath yoga.
  • Sufi poets such as Sanai 12th century, Attar 13th cent., Iraqi 13th cent, Rumi 13th cent helped spread its message far and wide.

PYQs

Section titled “PYQs”

Religion: Forms and features of religion, Tamil devotional cult, growth of Bhakti, Islam and its arrival in India, Sufism

  1. Give an account of the impact of Islam on Indian culture in respect of society, religion and fine arts. [1980, 60m]
  1. Write a short essay on: “Significance of the Bhakti Movement” [1987, 20m]
  1. Trace influence of Islam on Indian culture and civilization. [1999, 60m]
  1. Write a short essay on: “The Sufi Movement and its role in promoting communal harmony” [2000, 20m]
  1. Evaluate the impact of the Sufi and Bhakti Movements on vernacular languages and life and thought of the common people. [2001, 60m]
  1. Write a short essay on: “Origin of the Bhakti Movement” [2002, 20m]
  1. Write a short essay on: “Sufi Movements” [2003, 20m]

8.”The tenets of Hindu and Muslim mystics were similar enough that the ground was ripe for syncretic movements involving adherents of both religious.” Elucidate. [2005, 60m]

  1. Write a short essay on: “Sufism in North India” [2006, 20m]
  1. “The tenets of Hindu and Muslim mystics were similar enough that the ground was ripe for syncretic movements involving adherents of both religious.” Elucidate. [2007, 60m]
  1. What are the manifestations of Tamil devotional cults? How do you account for their growth between C. 750 and C. 1200 CE? [2008, 60m]
  1. Assess the contribution of the Acharyas in the development of the ideological basis of Bhakti. [2012, 10m]
  1. Bhakti and mysticism of Lal Ded emerged as a social force in Kashmir. Comment. [2013, 10m]
  • bhakti preacher Lal Ded exercised profound influence on Nuruddin Wali
  • Lal Ded - 14, S, Vatsun/Vakh/ Lal Vak poetry, Kashmiri lit
  • More content Needed
  1. “Sufis and medieval mystic saints failed to modify either the religious ideas and practices or the outward structure of Islamic/Hindu societies to any appreciable extent.” Comment for/against. [2015, 10m]