Trade and Commerce

2020-04-27 12:10:49

700 - 900 AD saw the decline of trade, metallic currency, urban centres and closed village economy
900 - 1300 AD saw revival of trade

First Phase 700 - 900 AD

Inc in granting of lands, emergence of intermediary landholder, immobility of the peasants and artisans added to the dearth to coins

Media of Exchange

Gurjara Pratihara, Palas and Rashtrakutas were ruling during this time
Archaeological excavations have shown paucity of coin moulds, coins. RS Sharma has focused this in his Indian Feudalism ‘65.
Major responses to this are :
- Orissa has shown absence of coins but emphasis was on barter in foreign trade with SE Asia
- Kashmir has shown emergence of copper coinage but the quality of it is poor
- In Bihar, West Bengal, Bangladesh coined money was not there but there were Harikela silver coins, cowries and Churni (gold dust) that was used as media of exchange
Part of indigenous people limited, trading confined to ruling classes, common people were called vangali (from Bengal) for ‘very poor’
neighbouring countries like Cambodian Khmer regime did not evolve a system of coinage and barter, or a sound economy.

Relative Decline of Trade

Fragmentation of polity led increased loot and scuffles/wars between them
Samaricchaksha of Haribhadra Suri and Kuvalayamala of Uddyotana Suri refers to brisk trade but draw heavily from previous sources.
Decline of Holy Roman empire, Byzantines learning how to make silk, competition from Arab traders, Arab conquest made trade unsafe, fights b/w Tibetans and Chinese

Urban Settlements Decay

Trade declined and urban folks started settling in rural areas
Hiuen Tsang and Puranic texts mention depopulation
Ex Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi.
Salt and Oil are the only imp article mentioned in inscriptions

Second Phase 900 - 1300 AD

Revival of trade, urbanisation, market economy, manufacturing of goods for exchange, greater production of cereals and pulses.

Crafts and Industry

Inc production
Textile Industry is praised by Marco Polo and Arab writers that were made in Bengal and Gujarat. Availability of Madder in Gujarat and Indigo in Bengal aided this.
Manasollasa mentions Paithan, Nagapattinam, Kalinga and Multan
Oil industry flourished ghanaka or oil mills mentioned in inscriptions from Karnataka, Telllikas were oil men
Sugarcane cultivation and Cane crushers to produce Jaggery
Iron smiths were proficient eg beams in Puri and Konarka temples
Sword Making in Magadha, Benares, Kalinga
Gujarat for gold and silver embroidery
Ginza Records of Jewish merchants mentions Indian Bronze works
Marco Polo mentions leather mats from Gujarat

Coins

Texts like Prabandhachintamani, Lilavati, Dravyapariksha, Lekhapaddhati mention Bhagaka, Rupaka, Vimshatika, Karshapana, Dinar, Dramma, Nishka, Gadhaiya-mudra, gayanaka, tanka etc.
Inscriptions like the Siyadoni inscription and inscription of rulers like Paramara, Chalukya, Chahmana etc
Coin minting was revived by Kalachuri king Gangeyadera of Tripuri, Ghadavala king Govindachandra of Varanasi, Chandela Kirtivarman and Madanavarman, Harsha king of Kashmir, Chola kings.
Coins were debased and reduced in weight, purchasing power was poor, overall volume was low, was not deep into the economy, use was restricted
Barter was still important
Credit system was well developed, Hundikas were used as bills of exchange

Inland Trade

Commodities of Trade

Benjamin Tudela a Jesuit priest from Spain mentions wheat, barley and pulses, linseed fibre, cotton cloth.
Al Idrisi mentions rice transported from Malabar to Sri Lanka
Friar Jordanus mentions palm sugar and coir
Marco Polo mentions export of Indigo from Quilon
China, Arabia and Egypt were chief importers. Europe and Mediterranean also.
New intermediaries and the mercantile class, religious establishments became consumers

Trade Routes and means of Communication

Hiuen Tsang mentions it - Kashmir, Kanchi, Assam, Sindh
Inscriptions mention merchants from Ktaka, Madhyadesha, South Gujarat and Sindh
Bilhana - 11th century poet mentions trade from Kashmir to Kalyani through Mathura, Kannauj and Prayaga
Albiruni (1030 AD) mentions 15 routes starting from Kannauj, Mathura, Bayana, Peshawar, Kabul etc.
Boats, Bullock carts, Human carriers were used
Villagers looked after highways, Chalukya kings had separate department called the Jiala-patha-Karana for it
Marco Polo refers to Cambay as safe from Pirates

Maritime Trade

Participants

Asian trade was dominated by Arabs and later Indian
Abu Zaid mentions Indian merchants visiting Siraf in Persia
Ibn Battuta mentions a colony of Indian merchants at Aden
Gujarati texts mentions about trade from Kutch
Inscriptions from Malaya and Sumatra mention trade with Cholas who also traded with China

Commodities

Chinese texts mention silk, porcelain ware, camphor, cloves, wax, sandalwood etc
Marco Polo mentions gold, silver and copper coming to ports of Cambay
Tin came from SE Asia
Exports were aromatics, spices like pepper.
Chau Ju Kua mentions cloth from Gujarat, Malwa, Malabar and Coromandel.
Ibn Batuta mentions fine cotton fabrics
Ivory, Rhino horns, precious and semi-precious stones
Arabic Inscriptions from Cambay, Samaratha, Junagadh.
Lekahpaddhati mentions trade from Gujarat coast
Jewish merchants carried goods to Europe
Horse imported from West; Ibn Batuta and Wassaf mentions from Bahrain, Muscat, Aden, Persia etc

Ports

Debal : Al Idrisi mentions it was visited by China and Arabia
Somanatha : China and Zanzibar
Broach :
Cambay/ Khambat
Quilon : fresh water was collected here before sailing to SE Asia
In Coromandel
- Nagapattinam
- Puri
- Kalingapattinam
Tamralipti in Bengal

Safety and Security of Merchants

! Chalukya’s set up a separate dept of harbours called Velakulakarana, granted religious and economic freedom to Muslim merchants
Chola kings managed ports through royal officials
Rashtrakutas have been praised by Muslims traders
$ Ibn Batuta mentions that when foreign Merchant dies his property is not confiscated but given to next of kin.

PYQs

Indian Feudalism; Agrarian economy and urban settlements; Trade and commerce

To what extent ‘monetary anaemia’ afflicted the erstwhile commercial economy during the early medieval period? [2010, 30m]

Decline of Coinage :

The term “monetary anemia” refers to a shortage of currency, which can lead to a contraction of economic activity. During the early medieval period in India, the commercial economy did experience some degree of monetary anemia, although the extent of this phenomenon is a matter of debate among historians.

Some historians argue that the early medieval period in India saw a significant decline in commercial activity due to the scarcity of currency. This scarcity was caused by a variety of factors, including the decline of long-distance trade, the weakening of central authority, and the hoarding of precious metals by powerful elites. The lack of currency made it difficult for merchants to conduct business, which in turn contributed to a contraction of the commercial economy.

Other historians, however, have challenged the idea that monetary anemia was a major factor in the decline of the commercial economy during this period. They argue that there is little evidence to suggest that there was a significant shortage of currency, and that other factors, such as the decline of long-distance trade and the rise of regional economies, were more important.

R.S. Sharma: R.S. Sharma, a well-known historian, argued that the lack of currency was a significant problem during the early medieval period in India. According to him, this led to a decline in long-distance trade and a contraction of the commercial economy.
D.N. Jha: D.N. Jha, another prominent historian, challenged the idea that there was a significant shortage of currency during this period. Instead, he argued that the commercial economy declined due to other factors, such as the rise of regional economies and the weakening of central authority.
Irfan Habib: Irfan Habib also questioned the idea of monetary anemia as a major factor in the decline of the commercial economy. He argued that the rise of regional economies and the decline of long-distance trade were more important factors.
Shireen Moosvi: Shireen Moosvi suggested that while there may have been a shortage of currency in some regions, this did not necessarily affect the entire commercial economy. She argued that the impact of monetary anemia varied depending on the specific context and region.

Explain the ingredients of the transitory nature of the early medieval India. [2016, 15 Marks]

This transitory nature of early medieval India is a shift away from the conventional model of early medieval India. The conventional model of early medieval India is based on the assumption that there was a continuity of ancient Indian polity, culture, and society in this period1. According to this model, early medieval India was dominated by large, centralized, unitary kingdoms with strong bureaucracies, such as the Guptas, Harshavardhana, Chalukyas, Pallavas, Rashtrakutas, Pratiharas, Pala etc. This model also implies that there was no significant change or decline in trade, urbanism, or social mobility in this period1.

However, this model has been challenged by various scholars who have pointed out the limitations and contradictions of this view. They have argued that there were major changes and transformations in early medieval India that cannot be explained by this model. Some of these changes include:

The emergence of new regional identities and languages1. The expansion of agriculture and rural settlements4. The proliferation of land grants and revenue assignments to various groups43. The decline of long-distance trade and urban centers43. The rise of feudal relations and caste differentiation43. The fragmentation of political authority and decentralization of states153.

The transitory nature of early medieval India refers to the changes that occurred in various aspects of Indian society, economy, polity and culture between c. 600 – 1200 CE12. Alternative models try to capture the diversity, complexity and dynamism and emphasised on its tranitory nature. Some of the ingredients of this transition are:

The decline of trade, urbanism and centralized states that marked the ancient period3.

The emergence of regional kingdoms with decentralized administration and land grants to various groups124.

The expansion of agriculture, rural settlements and caste system as a basis of social hierarchy13.

The development of new religious movements such as Bhakti, Tantrism and Islam that challenged Brahmanical orthodoxy15.

There are different models to explain this transition, such as feudalism, peasant state and society, and integrative state and social formation.

The Indian feudalism model, which argues that early medieval India was characterized by a self-sufficient, closed rural economy with a bipolar world of lords and peasants, decentralized feudal states, and proliferation of castes1. However, it has been criticized for being too Eurocentric, ignoring regional variations, and overlooking the continuities with ancient India

The peasant state and society model, which proposes that early medieval India was marked by a Brahmana-peasant alliance and segmentary state with pyramidal repetition of structures in autonomous segments (Nadus)1. it has been challenged for being too idealistic, neglecting other social groups, and overestimating the autonomy of Nadus3.

The integrative state and social formation model, which suggests that early medieval India witnessed the phased structural evolution of imperial kingdoms or regional/supra regional states and societies across regions. It has the strength of demonstrating the diversity, dynamism, and complexity of early medieval India across regions4. However, it has been questioned for being too optimistic, underestimating feudal tendencies, and glossing over conflicts and contradictions3.