Nationalism : State Building in Germany and Italy

2020-04-27 15:36:33

Nationalism : State Building in Germany and Italy
German Unification

German Unification

Struggle to unite GER speaking people within one nation, started by political, economic unification ended w/ military conquest

Background

GER National Ideas

Historical antecedents traced to early feudal period , deutsch used for GER speaking groups, Renaissance literati constructed new consciousness
Protestant translation of Bible into German led to growth of modern GER but growth of GN w/ rise of GER Romanticism
18th century based on community ties not contract/ citizenship, based on elaborate concept of volk, preoccupied w/ soul or mission of the nation, ML translation of Bible, Romanticist dev ethnic + linguist defn on concept of cultural nation

Political Background

GER Bund of 38 states created, Concert of EU to counter democratic ideas in EU, after 1848 GER electoral votes allocatedbasis of tax payment lasted till 1918
Effected by War, mil prowess of Prussia suppression of popular movt, defeat of smaller states like Saxon, Hesse Cassel, defeat of FR in Franco GER war 1870 creation of Imperial GER govt - Reichstag rep of 25 states as national parliament formed

Econ Background

Desire to face BR, relative backwardness - dev bourgeois ideology, Zollverein 1833 significant growth, railway based gwth interrupted by harvest failures 1846-47, industrialisation 1850-73, Ruhr coal fuelled Railways
Prussia public industrial and technical schools, Liberal entrepreneurs, engineering association, progressive bureaucracy
- Max Weber GER had a parvenu (self-aggrandizing) bourgeoisie, aristocracy, working class
Not founded on liberal democratic idea

Nationalism and Democracy

Liberal bour desired liberal demo reforms but small medium sized state, reliance on Prussian mil made national unifi and democratisation difficult
Defeat of revo 1848-49, Bismarck’s policy of blood Iron weakened demo movt

Unification Process

Revo from Above
Speeded by national market creation, network of railways, comms, self-conscious boureoisie

Bismarck German Unification

Based on war and diplomacy, SchleswigHolstein recovered from DEN, ATR Prussian war won at Koniggratz changed balance of power and war became inevitable w/ FR thus called that it was FR which was defeated at Koniggratz
Napoleon III was hostile to idea of GER unification, SPA succession - war

Napoleon German Unification

Defeated ATR at Austerlitz → Peace of Pressburg, HRE dissolved Rhine confederation created 39 states - Birth of German nationalism

VC of 1815

HRE restored, Rhine confederation could not be reverted

Early Efforts Towards GU

Role of Burshenschaft student org to liberate GER from despotic rule
Role of GER philosophers Historians
- Hegel, Fichte, Herder etc
- Historian highlighted glorious past Fredrick the great etc
- Led to cultural unity
Zollverine - facilitated better comm, troop movt, growth of modern industry, Capitalist supported Bismarck, helped raise large army

Revolution of 1848

Session of Frankfurt parliament summoned, decided GU under Prussia
Agreed to draft constitution for GER offered crown to Fredrick William IV who refused - growth of militarism bcoz did not want to hurt prestige of Pope, no faith in liberalism, scared of ATR might

Real Begin of GU

Bismarck appt Chancellor in 1858 by FW IV, William I took throne, Prussian parliament was liberal dominated who did not want war/militarism

Bismarck’s Approach

No faith in efficacy of liberal methods, only militarism cold succeed
Blood Iron policy ruthless suppression of opponents
Bypassed parliaments objection to budget large army
Ensured neutrality of RUS, FR during war

B Vision of GU

Prussian 1st GER later, wanted Prussiasation of GER
Did not wanted to sacrifice Pr interest
GER was too small for both ATR and Prussia - B was greatest obstacle in way of GER unity
No faith in liberal
GER prestige must be highest, shatter ATR FR prestige

Phases of GER Unification

Integration of Schleswig Lauenburg from DEN -

when King DEN Christian IX wanted to annex Pr and ATR attacked
ATR got Gastein, Holstein and Schleswig joined Prussia,
Lauenburg got in 1868

Creation of N GER Confederation

1866 PR war w/ ATR - Treaty of Prague 18 states of N GER merged w/ PR created NG fed
RUS, FR neutrality maintained

Phase III Integration of south

Catholics followers, N GER fed despised by Napo III was planning intervention
Bismarck defeated ATR in 7 weeks Bo Sadowa
Napo III demanded Rhine B did not give, FR attacked PR in 1870 were defeated in Bo Sedan, humiliating treaty of Frankfurt signed
South GER integrated
Europe gained a master replaced FR role as mistress
- FR was ideological leader, soft power
- GER dominance was hard power Blood Iron, no country could stand against it

Bismarcks Foreign Policy

Aims

Guided by GER national interest, maintain status quo
Isolation of FR, it cannot take revenge for 1870
Maintain peace, stability avoid conflict

FR Isolation

6 major powers ATR-HUN, GER, RUS, ITL, BR, FR
BR followed Splendid Isolation/ Golden isolation until BR interest was harmed
B did not consider ITL to be of concern

Alliances Created

League of 3 Emperors 1873

After GU, GER, ATR-HUN, RUS
William I, Francis Joseph, Alexander II were part of it
Mil alliance base on idea of collective security

Dual Alliance 1879

A/H after Lo3E collapsed 1878
RUS attacked TUR against A/H interest, Treaty of San Stefano
Was surrendered in Berlin under B humiliated Tsar Alexander II

League of the 3 Nations 1881

GER, A/H, RUS principle of collective security
New Tsar Alexander III, BR naval presence in area, for 3 yr period

Triple Alliance 1882

GER, A/H, ITL repeated request of ITL
ITL wanted Tunisia occupied by FR, B secretly supported to reinstate national honour after 1870 defeat
Completed FR isolation

Reinsurance Treaty 1887

w/ RUS after Lo3N failed
Convinced B that not possible to have A/H, RUS in same alliance
3yr period, William II succeeded W I ambitious, young not happy w/ B wanted expansionary policy
W II considered RUS as liability, keeping A/H w/ GER decided to drop RUS didn’t renew reinsurance in 1890
B insisted renewal

Examination of His Policy

Highly successful, GER domination unchallenged, ensured progress, FR isolation, precedent to peace time mil alliances
W II destroyed this, FR RUS alliance in 1894 came, 1904 Anglo FR Entente Cordiale, 1907 Triple Entente RUS, FR, BR
Secret nature of B alliance created fear suspicion, arms race, preceded WW1

Nature of His FP

Guided by GER national interest, opportunist, militarist, reflection of his approach of Blood Iron no sentiment involved, secretive, highly successful in immediate sense, Well defined aims, objectives

Italian Unification Aka Risorgimento (1848 - 1871)

![[Nationalism---state-building-i-image1-00051339.jpg|600x700]]

Before N politically divided into various states, S ITL under Bourbon, Central under Pope, N ITL under ATR

Role of N

Conquered in 1796-97 divided in 3 republican state estd
Political liberty, Equality, Fo Press, Religious Freedom granted, Restriction of trade uplifted, National awakening

Role of Vienna Congress

Revered progress under N
Parma, Modena, Tuscany -> to ATR princes
Pope Restored, Bourbon restored
Lombardy, Venetia to ATR
Genoa to PS - ITL unification

Early Efforts

Role of Carbonari circa 1810

Asso of coal miners estd 1810 wanted Liberation of ITL from foreign rule, Grant legal freedom,
No org led to failure

Role of Young ITL circa 1830

Mazzini estd 1831 dream create one ITL nation
Cultural unification, spread awakening, Fraternity propagated, emphasized violence
Successfully carried intellectual unif

Revolution of 1848

Downfall of Metternich inspired ITL
Mazzini persuaded Charles Albert of PS ot lead and fight against ATR
Pope Pious IX & Ferdinand II of Naples Sicily joined hands w/ Charles Albert they withdrew during war w/ ATR - Charles expansionist policy made them apprehensive
Charles defeated in Bo Custoza, Bo Novara and abdicated in favour of Victor Immanuel
Made masses realise the political unity possible only undr PMS

Beginning of Unification

Appt of Cavour as PM of PMS by Victor Immanuel 1858, PMS should lead bcoz other states were headed by Foreigners

Challenges to Unificatoin

Opposition by big powers, foreign domination of other parts
Difficult to displace Pope, Geographic division of ITL
Cultural Diff b/w Italians, economic diff b/w N and S
Ideological diff.
- Cavour wanted Liberal Const Monarchy
- Mazzini, Garibaldi wanted republican sys
- Geoberti -> ITL federation
Powerful feudal lords

Approaches of Cavour

Widened civil liberties, privileges of Church curtailed its properties taken away, secular policy estd, free trade, strong army 90m soldiers

Diplomacy

Support BR FR against RUS in Bo Crimea (1853-1856) to extend R influence across black sea, medit sea, sent 180k PMS soldiers to battlefield
In Peace of Paris, ATR supported RUS but lost, it guaranteed FR support in unific and BR neutrality
Bo Crimea aka purposeless battle no direct interest of any party involved in it
Plombiers Pact 1858
- Napo III and Count Cavour
- FR agreed to help PMS against ATR w/ 200k soldiers against territories of Nice and Savoy

Unification of Lombardy 1859

Cavour instigated revolt in Lombardi against ATR -> war -> Lombardy liberated
FR withdrew before Liberation of Venetia due to FR casualties
Peace of Vila Franca confirmed by Treaty of Zurich
- Lomabardy given to PMS but Venetia under ATR control
Cavour Resigned -> revolts in all parts he came back as PM

Phase II Starting circa 1860

Plebiscite in Parma, Modena, Tuscany, Bologna made them part of ITL
ATR wanted to intervene but BR govt led by Palmerston said ITL should be left alone

Naples, Sicily, Umbria

Not possible to directly intervene due to FR intervention as Bourbon dynasty was ruling
Garibaldi’s Red Shirts behind the scene
G did not merge w/ N ITL he wanted republican ITL
Cavour in touch w/ FR king Napo III, both leaders decided integrate Umbria, Marches, w/ N ITL FR gets Nice and Savoy
1860 these areas captured plebiscite held

[[Unit-18.pdf]] - Formation of Nation States - Germany and Italy [[08. Balyan World History Notes I.pdf]] - Baliyan Notes 1 [[07. Balyan World History Notes II.pdf]] - Baliyan Notes 2 L Mukherjee Page 312

PYQs

Nationalism: State building in Germany and Italy Italy and Germany

“The comparison between Cavour’s and Bismarck’s achievements reveals striking points of resemblance and no less striking points of dissimilarity.” Comment. [1990, 20 Marks]

Cavour and Bismarck were both key figures in the process of national unification in Italy and Germany respectively in the 19th century. Both men were instrumental in the formation of their respective nation-states and are considered to be among the most important political figures of the 19th century.

Similarities:

Both men were able to achieve national unity through a combination of diplomacy and military force.
Both men were able to create new nation-states through a series of wars and alliances.
Both men were able to create centralized states with strong central governments.
Both men were able to use their political skill and diplomatic acumen to gain support from other European powers.
Both men had a strong sense of nationalism and were motivated by the desire to create strong, independent nation-states.

Dissimilarities:

Cavour was able to achieve national unity through a series of wars and alliances with other Italian states, while Bismarck was able to achieve national unity through a series of wars against other German states.
Bismarck’s Germany was a federal state with a strong central government, while Cavour’s Italy was a centralized state with a weaker central government.
Bismarck had a more authoritarian and centralized approach to government, while Cavour had a more liberal and democratic approach.
Cavour’s Italy was a relatively weak state, while Bismarck’s Germany was a relatively strong state.
Italy was a country of many different cultures and languages, while Germany was more homogeneous in terms of culture and language.

“Comparison of the fascist regime in Italy with the National Socialist regime of Germany is almost inevitable. The similarities are obvious, but there is one point of difference which is worth mentioning.” Comment. [1991, 20 Marks]

Characteristics of Fascism
Difference ?

The unification of Italy and that of Germany constituted a contrast in respect of the ways they were affected and impact they left on later international politics. Elucidate. [1995, 60 Marks]

The impact of Italian unification and German unification on international politics was different in several ways:

Balance of power: The unification of Italy led to a shift in the balance of power in Europe, as the new Italian state represented a major addition to the number of strong nation-states on the continent. However, the unification of Germany led to a significant shift in the balance of power in Europe, as the new German state represented a major addition to the number of strong nation-states on the continent and was a major contributor to the outbreak of World War I.
International Relations: After the unification, Italy formed alliances and played a significant role in the politics of the continent, particularly in the lead-up to and during World War I. The unification of Germany led to the formation of the Triple alliance and later the Central powers which had implications for the balance of power in Europe and the outbreak of World War I.
Influence on other Nationalist movements: The success of the Italian nationalist movement served as a source of inspiration for nationalist movements in other parts of Europe and around the world. However, the German unification had a more direct influence on other nationalist movements as it was achieved through military victories and formed a powerful state that other nationalist movements in Europe aimed to emulate.
Colonial power: Italy’s unification created a new colonial power in the Mediterranean, which had implications for the balance of power and the political dynamics of the region. However, the German unification led to the emergence of Germany as a colonial power with global influence and interests.
Economic Impact: The unification of Italy led to the modernization and industrialization of the country, which had a positive impact on the economy. The unification of Germany led to the rapid industrialization and modernization of the country, which had a significant impact on the economy and made Germany one of the most powerful economies in the world.

Italy

Trace the various stages that led to the Unification of Italy between 1848 and 1870. [1980, 60 Marks]

Approaches of Cavour from here onwards

The unification of Italy was a complex and multi-faceted process that took place between 1848 and 1870. The following are the key stages that led to the unification of Italy:

The Revolutions of 1848: The revolutions of 1848 broke out across Europe, including Italy, and were driven by a desire for political and social change. The revolutions in Italy led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the election of a constituent assembly. The revolutions also led to the formation of the Roman Republic, which aimed to unite Italy and establish a republic.
The First Italian War of Independence: In 1848, the newly-formed Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, led by Charles Albert, declared war on Austria, the dominant power in Italy, in an attempt to unite the Italian states and free them from foreign rule. The war ended in defeat for Piedmont-Sardinia, and the status quo was maintained.
The Cavour Era: Camillo di Cavour, the Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, began to pursue a policy of economic and political modernization, which aimed to create a strong and united Italy. He also began to form alliances with other European powers, including France, in order to gain support for his plans to unify Italy.
The Second Italian War of Independence: In 1859, Piedmont-Sardinia, with the support of France, declared war on Austria in a renewed effort to unify Italy. This time, the war was successful, and Piedmont-Sardinia was able to expand its territory and gain control of Lombardy.
The Third Italian War of Independence: In 1866, Piedmont-Sardinia, once again with the support of France, declared war on Austria, this time with the goal of gaining control of Venetia. The war was successful, and Piedmont-Sardinia was able to gain control of Venetia and expand its territory further.
The Unification of the Italian States 1871

Trace the course of the movement for Italian Unification from 1848 with special reference to the contribution of Mazzini. [1983, 60 Marks].

1848: The movement for Italian Unification began in earnest in 1848 when the first of the Revolutions of 1848 broke out in Palermo, Sicily. The revolt was led by a group of Sicilian patriots, known as the Carbonari, who sought to overthrow the rule of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which was then ruled by the Bourbon dynasty. The revolutionaries declared a provisional government and called for the unification of Italy.

1849: The revolutionaries were eventually defeated, but their efforts sparked a wave of revolutionary activity throughout the Italian peninsula. In March 1849, a republican government was established in Rome, and the Roman Republic was declared. This government was led by Giuseppe Mazzini and Giuseppe Garibaldi, two of the most prominent figures in the unification movement.

1850: The Roman Republic was short-lived, however, and it was overthrown by the French in July 1850. This marked the end of the first phase of the unification movement.

1859: The second phase of the unification movement began in 1859, when the Kingdom of Sardinia, led by Victor Emmanuel II, declared war on Austria. This war, known as the Second Italian War of Independence, was fought in northern Italy and resulted in a victory for the Kingdom of Sardinia.

1860: Following the victory in the Second Italian War of Independence, the Kingdom of Sardinia was able to expand its territory and establish a unified Italian state. This state, known as the Kingdom of Italy, was officially proclaimed in March 1860.

1861: The Kingdom of Italy was officially established in March 1861, and Victor Emmanuel II was crowned King. The new Kingdom included much of the Italian peninsula, with the exception of Rome and Venetia, which were still under the control of the Austrian Empire.

1866: In 1866, the Kingdom of Italy declared war on Austria in the Third Italian War of Independence. This war resulted in a victory for the Kingdom of Italy, and it allowed the Kingdom to gain control of Venetia.

1870: In 1870, the Kingdom of Italy declared war on France in the Franco-Prussian War. This war resulted in a victory for the Kingdom of Italy, and it allowed the Kingdom to gain control of Rome.

1871: In 1871, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed the Kingdom of Italy, and Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy.

1872: In 1872, the final act of the unification process was completed when the Italian Parliament declared the Kingdom of Italy a unified and indivisible nation. This marked the end of the movement for Italian Unification, and Italy emerged as a unified and independent nation.

Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872) was an Italian patriot and revolutionary who played a key role in the struggle for Italian independence. He was an ardent advocate of Italian unification and was instrumental in the establishment of the Italian Republic in 1861.

Mazzini was born in Genoa and educated in Switzerland, where he became a passionate advocate for Italian independence. He joined the Carbonari, a secret society devoted to the liberation of Italy from foreign rule. He was soon arrested and exiled for his revolutionary activities, but he continued to pursue his cause from abroad.

In 1831, Mazzini founded the Young Italy movement, which aimed to unite the fragmented Italian states into a single nation. He organized a number of uprisings against the Austrian and other foreign rulers of the Italian peninsula, but all failed.

In 1848, Mazzini returned to Italy and took part in the revolutions that swept the country. He was a leader of the Roman Republic, which he hoped would become the first step towards a united Italy. However, the revolution was defeated and Mazzini was forced to flee.

Mazzini continued to advocate for Italian independence and unification. He founded a number of secret societies dedicated to the cause, including the Giovine Italia, the Italian National Society, and the Italian Republican Society. He also wrote extensively on the need for Italian independence and unification, and his writings were widely read and influential.

Mazzini’s efforts helped to inspire the Risorgimento, the movement for Italian unification that began in the mid-nineteenth century. He worked closely with other Italian leaders, such as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Camillo Cavour, to press for the creation of a unified Italian state.

Mazzini’s dream of a unified Italy was finally realized in 1861, when the Kingdom of Italy was established. He was offered the post of Prime Minister, but he declined and instead chose to serve as a member of the Italian Senate. He continued to advocate for Italian independence and unity until his death in 1872.

“They have stopped me from making Italy by diplomacy from the North; I will make it by revolution from the South.” Comment. [1985, 2005 20 Marks]

Approaches of Cavour more content needed

This statement “They have stopped me from making Italy by diplomacy from the North; I will make it by revolution from the South” was said by Garibaldi, an Italian revolutionary and general, who played a key role in the unification of Italy.

Garibaldi had been active in the Italian nationalist movement for many years and had been involved in several failed efforts to unify Italy through diplomacy. He believed that the northern Italian states, led by Piedmont-Sardinia, were not doing enough to unify Italy and that the only way to achieve this goal was through revolution.

In 1860, Garibaldi led a group of volunteers, known as the Thousand, on a successful military campaign to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, which was then ruled by the Bourbon monarchy. This campaign was supported by the Piedmont-Sardinian government and it was a significant step towards the Unification of Italy.

By saying this statement, Garibaldi is expressing his frustration with the lack of progress in unifying Italy through diplomacy, and his belief that the only way to achieve this goal is through revolution. He believed that the only way to achieve the unity of Italy was to take action from the South, and his campaigns of the Thousand made him a hero among the Italian people and a symbol of the Risorgimento, the movement for Italian unification.

How Garibaldi undertook reunification from the south.

The Expedition of the Thousand: In May 1860, Garibaldi led a group of volunteers, known as the Thousand, on a military campaign to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. He aimed to free the people of southern Italy from the rule of the Bourbon monarchy and unite them with the rest of Italy.
The Battle of Calatafimi: On May 15, 1860, Garibaldi’s forces engaged in a major battle with the Bourbon army at Calatafimi. Despite being outnumbered, Garibaldi’s forces were able to defeat the Bourbon army, which helped to boost morale and support for the campaign.
The Capture of Palermo: On May 27, 1860, Garibaldi’s forces captured the city of Palermo, the capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This was a major victory for the campaign, and it helped to gain support among the population of southern Italy.
The Battle of Milazzo: On July 20, 1860, Garibaldi’s forces engaged in a major battle with the Bourbon army at Milazzo. Garibaldi’s forces were able to defeat the Bourbon army, which helped to secure control of the island of Sicily.
The Capture of Naples: On September 7, 1860, Garibaldi’s forces captured the city of Naples, the capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This was a major victory for the campaign, and it marked the end of Bourbon rule in southern Italy.
The Annexation of Sicily and Naples: In October 1860, Garibaldi handed over control of Sicily and Naples to Victor Emmanuel II, the King of Piedmont-Sardinia. This helped to bring the southern Italian states under the control of the Piedmont-Sardinian government and marked a significant step towards the unification of Italy.

What were the obstacles to Italian unification till 1852? How and with what methods was the unification of Italy achieved? [1993, 60 Marks]

Challenges-

There were several obstacles to the unification of Italy prior to 1852:

Political Divisions: Italy was divided into several small states, each with its own government and ruler. These states had different political systems and interests, which made it difficult to achieve unity.
Foreign Dominance: Italy was under the control of foreign powers, primarily Austria, which had significant influence over the Italian states and was determined to maintain its control over the region.
Lack of Nationalism: There was a lack of a strong sense of nationalism among the Italian people, which made it difficult to unite them behind a common cause.
Economic Disparities: The Italian states were economically and socially diverse, with significant disparities in wealth and development between the North and the South.

The unification of Italy was achieved through a combination of diplomatic and military efforts, led by the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, under the leadership of Camillo di Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II.

Diplomatic efforts: Piedmont-Sardinia formed alliances with other European powers, particularly France, to gain support for its plans to unify Italy.
Military efforts: Piedmont-Sardinia declared war on Austria in 1859 and 1866, with the support of France, which led to the victory in those wars and the annexation of Lombardy and Venetia to Piedmont-Sardinia.
Garibaldi’s campaigns: Garibaldi led a group of volunteers, known as the Thousand, on a successful military campaign to conquer the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1860, which also had a significant role in the unification of the Italian states. This campaign helped to increase support for the unification movement and brought more territories under the control of Piedmont-Sardinia.
Popular support: The unification movement also gained popular support among the Italian people, particularly in the South, where there was widespread dissatisfaction with the rule of the Bourbon monarchy.
Constitutional reforms: Piedmont-Sardinia also implemented constitutional reforms that helped to create a more centralized government, which was more conducive to the process of unification.

Finally, in 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was declared the King of Italy and the unification of Italy was officially declared. The process of unification was not easy and it took many years, but through a combination of diplomatic, military, and popular efforts, the Italian states were united under one government and one king.

“The unification of Italy completed…the destruction of the European order.” Comment. [1997, 20 Marks]

Rev of 1848

The European order before the unification of Italy was characterized by a balance of power among several major European powers, including France, Britain, Russia, and Austria. Italy was not considered to be a major power, and its fragmentation into several small states made it easy for larger powers to exert influence over the region. The unification of Italy created a new and powerful state that challenged this balance of power and the existing European order.

The unification of Italy led to the emergence of a new major power in Europe, which had a significant impact on the balance of power in the continent. The addition of a strong and unified Italy to the European political landscape created a new dynamic, which made it difficult for the existing powers to maintain their dominance. This led to a shift in the balance of power in Europe, as the newly-unified Italy became a major player in the continent’s politics and diplomacy.

The unification of Italy also had a significant impact on the international order. The new state represented a change in the distribution of power among the European states, which led to a new set of alliances and rivalries. This change in the distribution of power also had an impact on the colonial and economic policies of the European states, as the new Italy became a major economic player in the Mediterranean and Africa.

Furthermore, the unification of Italy had an impact on the ideological order of Europe. The emergence of a united Italy marked the triumph of nationalism ideals and the emergence of a new nation-state. This had a profound impact on the other European states, which were inspired by the Italian example, and began to seek their own national unity. This development led to the emergence of new nation-states and the weakening of the old empires, which in turn led to the destruction of the European order.

The European order before the unification of Italy was characterized by several key features:

Balance of Power: The European order was based on a balance of power among several major European powers, including France, Britain, Russia, and Austria. These powers were in a state of constant competition, with each seeking to maintain or expand their influence and territory.
Fragmented Italy: Italy was not considered a major power in Europe, and it was fragmented into several small states, each with its own government and ruler. This made it easy for larger powers to exert influence over the region.
Diplomatic Alliances: The major powers formed diplomatic alliances with each other to maintain the balance of power and protect their interests. These alliances often shifted and changed over time depending on the circumstances.
Colonialism: European powers also had significant overseas empires, which they used to expand their economic and political influence.
Economic Interests: Economic interests played a significant role in the European order, with the major powers competing for access to resources and markets.
Ideological divisions: Europe was divided between liberal and conservative ideologies, with many countries having different forms of government, such as constitutional monarchy or absolute monarchy.
Religious diversity: Europe was also diverse in terms of religious affiliation, with Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, and Eastern Orthodox Christianity as the main religious groups.
Military Strength: The European order was maintained by a balance of military strength, with the major powers maintaining large and powerful armies to defend their interests.

The Unification of Italy brought changes in each of these features.

Impact on the balance of power: The unification of Italy led to the emergence of a new major power in Europe, which had a significant impact on the balance of power in the continent. The addition of a strong and unified Italy to the European political landscape created a new dynamic, which made it difficult for the existing powers to maintain their dominance. This led to a shift in the balance of power in Europe, as the newly-unified Italy became a major player in the continent’s politics and diplomacy.
Impact on Diplomatic Alliances: The unification of Italy also had an impact on the diplomatic alliances among the European powers. The emergence of a new major power led to the formation of new alliances and the re-evaluation of existing ones, as the major powers sought to maintain or improve their position in the new European order.
Impact on Colonialism: The unification of Italy also had an impact on the colonial policies of the European powers. The new Italy, as a major power, sought to expand its colonial holdings in Africa and the Mediterranean, which led to increased competition among the European powers for control of these regions.
Impact on Economic Interests: The unification of Italy also had an impact on the economic interests of the European powers. The new Italy became a major economic player in the Mediterranean and Africa, which led to increased competition among the European powers for access to resources and markets.
Impact on Ideological divisions: The unification of Italy also had an impact on the ideological divisions in Europe. The emergence of a united Italy marked the triumph of nationalist ideals, which had a profound impact on the other European states and led to the weakening of the old empires and the emergence of new nation states. This development represented a shift away from the traditional ideological divide between liberal and conservative ideologies towards a more pronounced emphasis on nationalism ideologies.
Impact on religious diversity: The unification of Italy did not have a direct impact on religious diversity in Europe, but it did contribute to the emergence of a more secular and nationalistic mindset among the population which led to a decline in the influence of religious institutions on politics and society.
Impact on Military Strength: The unification of Italy also had an impact on the military strength of the European powers. The emergence of a new major power, with a strong and modern army, led to increased competition among the European powers to maintain or improve their military capabilities. This led to an arms race among the European powers, which helped to set the stage for the First World War.

The emergence of a new major power, Italy, challenged the existing balance of power, diplomatic alliances, colonial policies, economic interests, ideological divisions, and military strength in Europe. The process of unification also marked the triumph of nationalist ideals, which had a profound impact on the other European states and led to the weakening of the old empires and the emergence of new nation-states.

“They have stopped me from making Italy by diplomacy from the North; I will make it by revolution from the South.” Comment. [2005, 20 Marks]

Approaches of Cavour

“Mazzini’s conception of Italian nationality was not exclusive, and his dominant ideal was the recreation of moral unity of mankind.” Critically examine. [2015, 10 Marks]

Role of Young ITL

Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian political leader, journalist, and activist who played a significant role in the Italian Risorgimento, the movement for Italian unification. He is known for his ideas about Italian nationalism and his vision for a united and democratic Italy. One of the key features of Mazzini’s conception of Italian nationality was that it was not exclusive. He believed that Italian nationalism should be inclusive, and that it should not be limited to the boundaries of the Italian state. He believed that Italian nationalism should be based on a shared culture, history, and language, rather than on a shared ethnicity or race.

Mazzini’s dominant ideal was the recreation of moral unity of mankind. He believed that the moral unity of mankind could be achieved through the creation of a federation of nations, in which all people would be equal and free. He believed that the first step towards achieving this goal was to unite the Italian people and create a democratic and united Italy. He believed that a united and democratic Italy would serve as an example for other nations, and that it would help to promote the ideals of freedom, equality, and fraternity throughout the world.

Mazzini also believed that the unity of Italy would be a step towards the unity of Europe. He believed that the unification of Italy would help to break down the barriers between the different nations of Europe, and that it would lead to the creation of a federation of European nations. He believed that this federation of nations would be based on the principles of democracy, freedom, and equality, and that it would help to create a more just and peaceful Europe.

In addition, Mazzini believed that the unity of Italy would be a step towards the unity of mankind. He believed that the unification of Italy would help to break down the barriers between different races, religions, and nationalities, and that it would lead to the creation of a federation of mankind. He believed that this federation of mankind would be based on the principles of democracy, freedom, and equality, and that it would help to create a more just and peaceful world.

Mazzini’s ideas about Italian nationalism were unique in that they were not based on exclusivity or superiority of one group over others. His ideas were inclusive and aimed at the moral unity of mankind, which he thought could be achieved through the creation of a federation of nations. This vision of a united and democratic Italy, as a step towards a more just and peaceful world, was a central goal that he worked towards throughout his life.

Criticism of this theory.

Lack of practicality: Mazzini’s ideas were based on high-minded ideals, but they were not always practical or achievable. His vision for a federation of nations, for example, was not realistic given the political realities of the time and the competing interests of the European powers.
Failure to address regional differences: Mazzini’s ideas did not take into account the significant regional differences within Italy, such as the economic and social disparities between the North and the South. This could be criticized as not being inclusive enough and not truly representing the diversity of the Italian population.
Lack of popular support: Mazzini’s ideas were not always popular among the Italian people. Many Italians were more concerned with their own immediate needs and were not interested in the high-minded ideals that Mazzini espoused.
Failure to take into account the role of class: Mazzini’s ideas did not take into account the role of class in the unification of Italy and the social struggles that the working class and the poor faced.
Failure to address the role of religion: Mazzini’s ideas did not take into account the role of religion in Italy, where it was an important factor in shaping the country’s culture and society. This could be criticized for not being inclusive enough and not fully representing the diversity of the Italian population.
Failure to address the role of women: Mazzini’s ideas did not take into account the role of women in the unification of Italy and the struggle for equality. This could be criticized as not being inclusive and not fully representing the diversity of the Italian population.

Germany

“Napoleon kindled the national sentiment, but German unity was achieved by Bismarck.” Discuss. [1981, 60 Marks]

Napoleon Bonaparte, the French emperor, played a significant role in kindling nationalism sentiment in Germany during the early 19th century. Napoleon’s conquests and campaigns in Europe brought the German states into direct contact with the French political and cultural ideals of the Revolution, such as nationalism and civic republicanism. He abolished feudalism, introduced the Napoleonic Code, and imposed the French administrative system, which helped to create a sense of shared identity among the German people.

Napoleon’s campaigns also led to the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire and the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which brought the German states together under French hegemony. This led to a sense of shared experience and identity among the German people, as they were united in their opposition to French rule.

Changes that Napoleon brought in Germany :

Napoleon reorganized the German states into a more centralized system, replacing the loose confederation of states with a stronger central government.
He introduced the Napoleonic Code, which served as the basis for a unified legal system in Germany.
He abolished feudal privileges and serfdom, promoting social and economic modernization.
He encouraged the spread of education and the development of a national identity.
He established a system of conscription, creating a large and efficient standing army.
He built a network of roads and highways, improving transportation and communication.
He established a standard system of weights and measures, currency, and taxes.
He helped to spread the ideals of the French Revolution, such as nationalism and liberalism, throughout Germany.
He promoted the German language and culture, helping to establish it as a distinct national identity.

However, it is said that German unity was achieved by Bismarck, who was the Chancellor of Prussia from 1862 to 1890. Bismarck played a key role in the unification of Germany by using a combination of diplomacy, war, and political maneuvering to bring the various German states under the control of Prussia. He negotiated alliances, created alliances and took advantage of internal conflicts and external pressures to achieve his goal of creating a unified Germany.

Bismarck’s most notable achievement was the creation of the German Empire in 1871, which united the German states under the leadership of Prussia. He was able to achieve this by waging war against Denmark, Austria and France and through a series of diplomatic maneuvers.

“It is one of the ironies of history that Napoleon was the creator of modern Germany.” Comment. [1984, 20 Marks]

Napoleon German unification more content needed on this

It is indeed ironic that Napoleon, a French military leader and emperor who is often associated with the conquest and domination of other countries, played a significant role in the creation of modern Germany. Despite the fact that he was an enemy of Germany, he was also one of the key figures who helped to shape the country as we know it today.

One of the most significant ways in which Napoleon contributed to the creation of modern Germany was through his reorganization of the German states. Prior to Napoleon’s rise to power, Germany was a loose confederation of states with little central authority. Napoleon, however, sought to create a stronger central government by reorganizing the German states into a more centralized system. This helped to lay the foundation for a more unified country.

Another important way in which Napoleon contributed to the creation of modern Germany was through his introduction of the Napoleonic Code. This legal code served as the basis for a unified legal system in Germany and helped to establish a consistent set of laws across the country. Additionally, Napoleon abolished feudal privileges and serfdom, which promoted social and economic modernization. He also encouraged the spread of education and the development of a national identity, helping to create a sense of shared culture and history among Germans.

Napoleon also played a crucial role in the military development of Germany. He established a system of conscription, creating a large and efficient standing army. Additionally, he built a network of roads and highways, improving transportation and communication throughout the country. He also established a standard system of weights and measures, currency, and taxes which helped to promote economic development.

Furthermore, Napoleon helped to spread the ideals of the French Revolution, such as nationalism and liberalism, throughout Germany. This helped to promote the idea of a strong German identity separate from the Holy Roman Empire. He also promoted the German language and culture, helping to establish it as a distinct national identity.

These developments were not always accepted positively by the German people, as many of them saw these changes as foreign imposition and resented Napoleon’s rule. However, it’s undeniable that Napoleon had a profound impact on the shaping of modern Germany and helped lay the foundation for the eventual unification of Germany under Prussia in 1871.

“The Unification of Germany was the one thing Bismarck was determined to prevent.” Comment. [1987, 20 Marks]

Napoleon German unification
More content needed

“At the end of the battle of Sedan (1870)‚ Europe lost a mistress and gained a master.” Comment. [1995, 20 Marks]

Phase III Integration of south
Phases of GER unification this whole

Isolation of France constituted the keystone of Bismarck’s foreign policy. Elucidate. [1997, 60 Marks]

B foreign policy

The German statesman Otto von Bismarck was the mastermind behind the policy of isolating France. Bismarck believed that a strong and unified Germany was the best way to protect the interests of the German states against the ambitions of France. He set out to create a network of alliances that would encircle France and prevent it from expanding its influence in Europe.

The first step in Bismarck’s policy of isolating France was the formation of the German Confederation in 1866. This alliance, made up of the German states, provided a unified front against France and increased German power.

The next step in Bismarck’s plan was to form an alliance with Austria-Hungary. This was done in 1879 with the Dual Alliance. This alliance was designed to protect Germany and Austria-Hungary from the threat of a French attack.

The next step in Bismarck’s plan was to form an alliance with Italy. This was done in 1882 with the Triple Alliance. This alliance was designed to protect Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy from the threat of a French attack.

The next step in Bismarck’s plan was to form an alliance with Russia. This was done in 1887 with the Reinsurance Treaty. This alliance was designed to protect Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Russia from the threat of a French attack.

The final step in Bismarck’s plan was to form an alliance with Great Britain. This was done in 1890 with the Triple Entente. This alliance was designed to protect Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Russia, and Great Britain from the threat of a French attack.

By forming these alliances, Bismarck had effectively isolated France from the rest of Europe. France was surrounded by powerful states and had no allies to turn to for help. This isolation was a major factor in the outcome of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71, which resulted in the creation of the German Empire.

Bismarck’s policy of isolating France was an important part of his overall strategy to create a unified Germany and protect it from the ambitions of its European rivals. His policy was successful and it enabled Germany to become a major power in Europe.

“The political unification of Germany was accomplished solely by Bismarck.” Comment. [1999, 20Marks]

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“Bismarck created a new Germany with the policy of ‘blood and iron’.” Comment. [2001, 20 Marks]

Real Begin of GU more content needed on this

The “policy of blood and iron” was a phrase coined by Bismarck to describe his approach to achieving the unification of Germany. This policy emphasized the use of military force and a strong, centralized government to bring the various German states together under the leadership of Prussia. Bismarck believed that the only way to achieve German unification was through the use of force and a strong, centralized government, rather than through negotiation and compromise.

Under this policy, Bismarck took several steps to achieve German unification. These include:

Wars: Bismarck used military force to expand the territory and influence of Prussia. He waged wars against Denmark in 1864, Austria in 1866, and France in 1870-71. These wars helped to bring the German states under the control of Prussia and set the stage for the formation of the German Empire in 1871.
Diplomatic maneuvers: Bismarck used diplomacy to achieve his goals. He formed alliances with other European powers, such as Austria and Russia, to counter the influence of France. He also took advantage of internal conflicts and external pressures to achieve his goal of creating a unified Germany.
Creation of the North German Confederation: In 1867, Bismarck created the North German Confederation, which was a loose federation of German states under the leadership of Prussia. This helped to bring the German states together and set the stage for the formation of the German Empire in 1871.
Promoting the idea of a “Lesser Germany”: Bismarck promoted the idea of a “Lesser Germany” which would exclude Austria and exclude the Catholic southern German states. This helped to prevent the emergence of a rival power in Germany and maintain the dominance of Prussia.

“Napoleon kindled the national sentiment, but German unity was achieved by Bismarck.” Discuss. [2002, 60 Marks]

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Role of N Napoleon German unification

Bismarck united Germany not by majority of votes and speeches but by a policy of “Blood and Iron”. In the light of this statement assess the contribution of Bismarck to the unification of Germany. [2003, 60 Marks]

Real Begin of GU

“To Bismarck the conclusion of the Treaty of May 20, 1882, was the culmination of his system.” Comment. [2004, 20 Marks]

Alliances Created

Bismarck’s system for achieving German unification involved a combination of diplomacy, military force, and political maneuvering. He used a strategy of “blood and iron” to bring the various German-speaking states together under Prussian leadership.

One of the key elements of his strategy was his ability to form alliances and make deals with other European powers. He formed an alliance with Austria-Hungary in 1879, known as the Dual Alliance, which helped him to isolate France and prevent it from interfering in his plans for German unification. He also used this alliance to gain the support of other German states, such as Bavaria and Württemberg.

Bismarck also used military force to achieve his goals, most notably in the wars against Denmark (1864) and Austria (1866). These wars resulted in Prussia gaining control of Schleswig-Holstein and several other territories.

He also used political maneuvering to bring about the unification of Germany. He proposed the creation of the North German Confederation in 1867, which was made up of several northern German states, and the southern states were later brought into the Confederation through a series of political deals. In 1871, the German Empire was officially formed with the King of Prussia, Wilhelm I, as its emperor.

The Treaty of May 20, 1882, also known as the Triple Alliance Treaty, was signed between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. It established a defensive alliance between the three countries and was seen as a major achievement for the German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Bismarck had worked towards creating a balance of power in Europe through a series of diplomatic maneuvers and alliances, and the Treaty of May 20, 1882, was the culmination of his efforts. It solidified Germany’s position as a major European power and helped to maintain peace in the continent for a number of years.

Was German unification achieved more by ‘coal and iron’ than by ‘blood and iron’? [2012, 30 Marks]

Zollverein onwards
After 1871

“The language of narrow nationalism held at Frankfurt destroyed the German Revolution; as the fatal idea of aggrandizement of the House of Savoy destroyed the Italian Revolution.” Discuss. [2014, 20 Marks]

The Italian and German revolutions of 1848-49 were movements aimed at creating a united and democratic Italy and Germany, respectively.

The Italian Risorgimento, as the Italian Unification movement is called, began with a series of popular uprisings in various parts of Italy in 1848, calling for the end of foreign domination and the creation of a united, independent Italy. The movement was led by figures such as Giuseppe Garibaldi and Camillo di Cavour, and was supported by a growing sense of national identity among the Italian people. However, despite initial successes, the Risorgimento ultimately failed to achieve its goal of creating a united Italy. One of the main reasons for this failure was the intervention of foreign powers, such as Austria, which sought to maintain control over its Italian territories. In addition, the different Italian states had different political and economic interests, and were unable to come to an agreement on the form of a united Italy.

The German revolution of 1848-49, also known as the March revolution, began with popular uprisings in various German-speaking states in 1848, calling for the end of feudalism and the creation of a united, democratic Germany. The movement was led by figures such as Friedrich Engels and Karl Marx, and was supported by a growing sense of national identity among the German people. However, despite initial successes, the German revolution ultimately failed to achieve its goal of creating a united Germany. One of the main reasons for this failure was the intervention of foreign powers, such as Austria and Russia, which sought to maintain control over their German territories. In addition, the different German states had different political and economic interests, and were unable to come to an agreement on the form of a united Germany. The National Assembly in Frankfurt, which was established in 1848, was made up of representatives from various German-speaking states who were tasked with drafting a constitution for a united Germany. However, rather than focusing on the common goal of unification, many of the representatives were more concerned with promoting the interests of their own individual states.

This statement is referring to the fact that the German Revolution of 1848-49, which aimed to create a united and democratic Germany, failed in part due to the influence of narrow nationalism. The National Assembly, which was established in Frankfurt in 1848, was made up of representatives from various German-speaking states who were tasked with drafting a constitution for a united Germany. However, rather than focusing on the common goal of unification, many of the representatives were more concerned with promoting the interests of their own individual states.

The idea of aggrandizement of the House of Savoy, refers to the role of the Italian royal family, the House of Savoy, in the Italian Risorgimento, the Italian Unification movement. The House of Savoy, which ruled the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, saw the opportunity to expand their own power and territory through the unification process. This led to a focus on the interests of the House of Savoy, rather than on the goal of creating a united Italy.

This statement suggests that the narrow focus on individual state interests and the desire for personal or political gain, rather than the common goal of national unity, ultimately led to the failure of both the German and Italian revolutions. It highlights that in order to achieve the national unity, it’s important to put the national interest above personal or political gains.

What determinant factors, along with diplomatic, shaped the process of German Unification? [2017, 20 Marks]

B foreign policy

! Bacground has been mentioned well in IGNOU BA.

Economic factors: The German states had a high level of economic interdependence, and the growth of industries and trade, especially in the Prussian territories, helped to bring the German states closer together.
Cultural factors: The German-speaking people shared a common culture and history, and this helped to create a sense of unity among them. The spread of nationalism ideals and the growth of a German national identity also played a role in the process of unification.
Military factors: The Prussian military had a strong reputation and was considered to be one of the most powerful in Europe. The victories of Prussian army in the wars against Denmark and Austria helped to establish Prussia as the dominant military power in Germany, and gave it the means to bring the other German states into the fold.
Political factors: The Zollverein, a customs union established in 1834 which abolished tariffs between the German states, played a key role in the political and economic integration of German states. The growth of a strong central government under Prussian leadership, as well as Bismarck’s ability to manipulate the political situation in the German states, also contributed to the unification process.
Socio-political factors: The rise of the middle class and the growing discontent with the feudal system among the German population also played a role in the process of German unification. The desire for political and economic change among the German people helped to

“18 January 1871 had been a day of triumph for the strength and pride of Germany and 28 June 1919 was the day of chastisement.” Critically examine. [2017, 10 Marks]

More content on 1871
Treaty of Versailles

! Mention what were the positive consequences of each of these events.

The statement “18 January 1871 had been a day of triumph for the strength and pride of Germany and 28 June 1919 was the day of chastisement” refers to two significant events in German history: the formation of the German Empire on January 18, 1871, and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on June 28, 1919.

The formation of the German Empire on January 18, 1871, was indeed a day of triumph for Germany. The country had just emerged victorious from the Franco-Prussian War and had successfully unified under the leadership of Prussia. The formation of the German Empire marked the emergence of a new major power in Europe and brought a sense of pride and strength to the German people.

However, the statement that 28 June 1919 was the day of chastisement is more complex. The Treaty of Versailles, which was signed on that date, imposed harsh penalties on Germany, including war reparations, territorial losses, and restrictions on the size of the German military. These penalties were aimed at weakening Germany and preventing it from becoming a major military power again.

However, it could be argued that the signing of the Treaty of Versailles was not just a day of chastisement but also a day of opportunity for Germany. The treaty marked the end of World War I and paved the way for the country to rebuild and move forward. The treaty also provided an opportunity for Germany to come to terms with its role in the war and to work towards a more peaceful and stable future.

At the end of the Battle of Sedan (1870), “Europe lost a mistress and gained a master”. Critically examine. [2018, 10 Marks]

Phase III Integration of south
Phases of GER unification this whole

Examine the role of Bismarck in state building in Germany. [2018, 20 Marks]

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Otto von Bismarck was a German statesman who is credited with playing a crucial role in the unification of Germany in the 19th century. He served as the first Chancellor of Germany from 1871 to 1890 and is considered one of the most influential figures in modern German history. Bismarck is credited with laying the foundations of the modern German state through his policies of state building.

Bismarck’s primary goal was to unify the German states into a single, unified nation-state. To achieve this, he sought to create a strong central government that could effectively govern the German states. He achieved this by introducing a number of reforms that strengthened the federal government. He implemented a system of taxation and tariffs that generated revenue for the central government, and introduced a unified currency and a postal system. He also established a common legal framework for the German states, which included a unified criminal code and a unified civil code.

Bismarck also sought to strengthen the German economy by encouraging industrialization and free trade. He introduced a number of reforms that promoted economic growth, such as the establishment of a national bank and the implementation of a protective tariff. He also encouraged foreign investment in Germany, which helped to stimulate economic growth.

Bismarck was also keen to strengthen the German military, which he saw as essential for the unification of Germany. He increased military spending and introduced a number of reforms that strengthened the German army. He also sought to create a strong navy, which he believed was necessary for the protection of German interests abroad.

In addition to strengthening the German state, Bismarck sought to protect German interests abroad. He pursued a policy of Realpolitik, which involved forming alliances with other European powers in order to protect German interests. He also sought to maintain peace in Europe by forming alliances and negotiating treaties with other countries.

Overall, Bismarck’s policies of state building were highly successful and laid the foundations for the modern German state. His reforms helped to unify the German states, strengthen the German economy, and protect German interests abroad. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in modern German history and his legacy continues to be felt in the modern German state.