Fascist Counter Revolution in Italy and Germany

2020-04-27 15:39:21

Fascist Counter Revolution in Italy and Germany

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Italy

Why Mussolini Came to Power?

Disillusionment and Frustration

Versailles treaty disappoint Allies promised Trentino, South Tyrol, Istria, Dalmatia, Albania etc. Not given ALB, Fiume
Economic effects of war - disastrous standard of living, loans from US, lira declined, unemployment
Contempt for parliamentary sys - difficult for 1 party to gain power, coalition inevitable, no consistent policy, stability

Wave of Strikes 1919 20

Due to inc socialism, trade unions, gov failed to protect private property fear of left revolution fuelled the right wh did not subside even when factory strikes declined

Widespread Support for Mussolini

Promised to provide strong stable govt, founded fascist party, sympathy for factory occupations this stage fascist were anti monarchy, anti-Church anti big business - Extreme Left
Failure of factory occupation - M pro property, black shirts supporters burned socialist HQs, bcame pro Church - Extreme Right

Lack of Opposition

Anti-fascist groups failed to cooperate
Socialists refused to work w/ gov to curb Fas.

Strike 1922

Failed strike due lack of support, M able to pose as saviour of nation from communism
Victor Emmanuel III refused to declare emergency invited M form govt, not used army to stop blackshirts, sympathy w/ fas provide strong govt

Characteristics of Fascism

Stable Authoritarian Govt :
- Mobilise people inculcate discipline
- Corporate state - promoting efficiency by setting sep org of workers, employers w/ attached gov official
Extreme Nationalism :
- Rebirth of nation, superior to all others
One party state :
- No place for demo debate, cult of charismatic leader
- Title of Il Duce the leader, hostile to communism
Great use to all latest modern form of propaganda -
- Uniforms, marches, songs, displays
- New dynamic alternatives to old forms
Mil strength and Violence

Fascist State

Only Fascist Party Allowed

Murdered persistent opponents like Matteotti
Fas popularity decline, party almost split
Further changes in constitution - M responsible only to King, not parliament, PM could rule by decree, electorate reduced

Changes in Local Govt

Elected town councils, Mayors abolished now appt by Govt

Education Supervised

Teachers wear uniforms, Children encouraged to join party
Sons of Wolf for boys 6-8
1937 mem of one of these org compulsory
Believe, Obey, Fight

Employment Policies

Corporate state, strikes lockouts not allowed
M minister of Corporation, various corporations dealt w/ industries etc

Understanding w/ Pope

Lateran Treaty ITL recog Vatican as sovereign state, paid pope large sum, accepted Catholic faith as state religion
Made religious instruction compulsory, free to continue spiritual mission in schools
Papacy recog king ITL, promised no interference in politics
Ended long breach b/w Church and State

Propaganda and Censorship

Close control over press, radio, cinema etc, anti-fascist paper etc banned
Mil glories of ancient Rome, Glorification of M

Racial Policy

No signs of anti-Jewishness, many Fas mem were Jews
Believe ITL were Aryans, worried about Levantine slaves
1939 anti-Jewish laws intro after Pact of Steel

Mussolini’s Failure to Create Totalitarian State

M did not succeed in creating complete totalitarian sys in the Fas sense ie no individual or group not controlled by state
Never completely eliminated influence of king/pope which became critical when Jewish persecution started
State was authoritarian, corporatism more, propaganda states
Wiskemann - big industrialists only made gestures of submission. Imp decision taken in consultation

Benefits

Industry encouraged - esp Iron Steel
Battle for Lira - revalued Lira made exports more expensive
Battle for Wheat - popular w/ wealthy cereal growers, mixed results
Battle for Births - taxing unmarried men heavily, double birth rate, tax relief, penalties for abortion, rate actually fell
Land Reclamation - irrigation, planting forest, draining marshes inc agri yields
Public works prgm - reduce employment, build motorways, bridges, blocks, railways etc
After Work org - cheap holidays, tours, cruises etc to appease workers, popular among them

Problems

Failed become self-sufficient in Coal, Oil, steel etc Hydro-electric power
Wheat at expense of dairy, arable farming, agri remained inefficient, dualist econ north industrialised, south agri based, self-sufficiency was a failure
Great depression, Lira not devalued cost of living became high, workers could not protest
Social services failed - no welfare state, no govt health insurance, inadequate unemployment insurance scheme
Regime inefficient and corrupt - by trying to do everything he ended controlling very little

Downfall

Entry into side of GER disaster, majority ITL against it, incapable of making major war, obsolete mil equipment, no heavy tanks, less planes
Hardships suffered by General public
String of defeats
Mussolini lost his touch - allied capture of Sicily was breaking point, many Fas leaders realised lunacy of continuing war, M refused to make peace, Grand Council turned against him, King dismissed him - Fas disappeared

Verdict

Temporary Aberration - Cassels - gigantic confidence trick
Fas grew naturally from ITL historymost historians accept this
- Renzo de Felice - movt of emerging middle class
- Blinkhorn - negative brutal side of fas
Revisionist portray M inspirational leader
- Farrell - M saved ITL from anarchy, communist subversion

Germany

Weimar Republic

The Weimar Republic refers to the democratic government that existed in Germany from 1919 to 1933. It was established after the fall of the German Empire and the end of World War I, and its name comes from the city of Weimar where the new constitution was adopted.

The Weimar Republic came into existence as a result of the collapse of the German Empire in the aftermath of World War I. The German Empire was defeated by the Allied Powers and forced to accept the harsh terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which included heavy reparations, territorial losses, and limitations on the size of the German military. This led to widespread discontent among the German people, and the fall of the monarchy.

The major stakeholders who formed the Weimar Republic were a diverse group of political parties and groups who came together to create a new democratic government in the aftermath of World War I. These groups included:

Social Democrats: The largest political party in the Weimar Republic, the Social Democrats were a socialist party that sought to create a more equal society and improve the lives of the working class.
Democratic Party: A moderate liberal party that sought to create a stable democratic government and improve the economy.
Center Party: A Catholic party that sought to protect the rights of religious minorities and promote social justice.
People’s Party: A conservative party that sought to preserve traditional values and limit the power of the state.
Communist Party: A small communist party that sought to establish a socialist government and abolish private ownership of property.
Nationalists: A group of parties and groups that sought to promote German nationalism and reject the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

Reasons for Fall of Weimar Republic

Disadvantages
- Accepted Versailles treaty - unpopular, humiliating
- Traditional lack of respect for democratic form - admiration of army
- Weakness of parliamentary system introduced - proportional representation
- Little experience to operate democratic parliamentary sys - no compromise, communists, nationalists did not support Social Democrats
Outbreak of violence
- Spartacist Rising - 1919 communist tried to seize power, Govt able to defeat help of Freikorps anti commie ex-army officers
- Kapp Putsch - 1920 right wing attempt to seize power, when Gov tried to disband Freikorps occupied Berlin army took no action brought down w/ workers helps
- Political assassination - done by ex-Freikorps mem, teachers, civil service, Reichswehr anti-Weimar
- Hitler’s Beer Hall Putsch - helped Gen Ludendorff take control of Bavarian state, police broke it fizzled out
- Private armies expanded - unemployment grew 1930s,
Economic problems
- 1919 close to bankruptcy due to expense of war
- Refusal of FR to suspend reparation until econ recovery
- 1923 FR occupation of Ruhr industrial area
- Value of mark fell rapidly, new currency Retenmark intro
- Working class badly hit, trade union funds wiped off but landowners, capitalists still maintained their material wealth
- Dawes plan, Young Plan
- Prosperity depended on US loans, 1929 forced to stop it
- Wall Street Crash - bank runs, over production, dec in exports, Stresemann died
- Govt measures took time to show results, criticism from all
Hitler attractive alternative because
- Offered national unity, prosperity, full employment ridding GER of real troubles Jesuits, Freemason, Jews
- Promised overthrow Versailles settlement
- Nazi private army SA/Storm Troopers attract youth
- Wealth owners feared communist takeover
  - Fest - but funds flowed after he came to power
- Hitler had extraordinary political abilities - energy will power, mass rallies, parades, radio, film etc
- Contrast b/w Weimar Nazi party impressed people
- Economic crisis helped Hitler - social misery

Hitler Became Chancellor Jan 1933

Papen, Schleicher offered Hitler coalition coz
- Afraid of Nazis attempting Putsch
- Taste of power would make Nazis modify extremism
- Hoped through Nazi coop would restore Monarchy
Persuaded Hinderburg to make H Chancellor and Paupen VC

Characteristics of National Socialism - Did not Stood for Distribution of Wealth, Socialism Added to Attract Workers

More than a political party, was way of life, rebirth of nation, unite to form national community
Ruthless efficient Org of all aspects of lives of masses under central Gov
Org entire state on military footing
Race theory vital - Aryans, Non Aryans

Nazi as Natural Dev of GER History

Shelley - Prussian military doctrine emphasised destruction of all enemy forces prime objective, Genocidal mentality seen in Tanganyika, Namibia but Holocaust had no precedent

Consolidation of Power

Election March 5 1933 - Violent, Goering reorganised state as repressive org SA, SS made, no mercy towards communists, enemies of state
Reichstag fire - before election, started by Dutch anarchist, SA might have known about this, H used fire stir up fear of communism, did not give majority of H

Staying in Power

Enabling Law 1933

Govt could intro laws w/o approval of Reichstag, Legal basis of H power, could ignore consti, sign agree w/ foreign countries, his will was law
Kroll opera where MPs had gathered was surrounded by SA, SS

Gleichshaltung or Forcible Coordination

govt tried to control all aspects of life through Gestapo its main features
All other political parties banned one party state
All functions in states transferred to Nazi Special Commissioner
Civil Service purges, Jews removed
Trade Unions, source of resistance abolished, funds confiscated,
Education sys closely controlled, textbooks rewritten
Hitler Youth, League of German maidens
Special policy concerned w/ familycontraceptives banned, family planning centres closed
Communications and Media controlled by Minister of Propaganda -Triumph of the will documentary show Nuremberg rally, books burnt

Econ Life of Country Closely Org, Policy of Autarky - Put Econ into War footing

Telling industrialist what to produce
Moving workers around to where jobs existed
Encourage farmers to inc agri yields
Controlling food prices
Manipulating forex
Vast public schemes ex autobahn
Forcing foreign countries to buy GER goods
Mfd synthetic rubber, wool
Inc arms expenditure

Religion Under State control

Concordat w/ pope promised no interference w/ GER Catholic in return promised no political interference broke concordat dissolved Catholic Youth League
Tried to organise Protestants under a Reich Church, dissenters persecuted
Police state above all
Anti-Semitic policy - Nuremberg Laws deprived them of citizenship, Kritallnacht night of broken glasses, Final Solution

Policies Popular w/ Many Sections

Great wave of enthusiasm, military parades - seemed to offer action
Successful to eliminate unemployment
Care taken to keep support of workers - Joy organisations
Wealthy industrialists supported
Farmers initially doubtful but late warmed toward assured reasonable profit
- Gained support of Reichswehr/ army

Nazism Vs Fascism

Similarities - Anti-communist, Antidemocratic, attempted to make country self-sufficient, unity of classes, supremacy of state
Differences - Fas never seemed to take root in ITL like in GER
- ITL not as efficient, not as ruthless, not particularly anti-Jewish, M more successful than H in religious policies, King vital in ITL

[[Unit-26.pdf]] - Counter Revolution I [[Unit-27.pdf]] - Counter Revolution II

PYQs

Fascist Counter-Revolution, Italy and Germany

“Extreme nationalism of the Fascist Variety has various faces in various countries, but it has everywhere certain common characteristics.” Comment. [1989, 20 Marks]

Characteristics of Fascism

• Authoritarianism: Fascism is an authoritarian ideology that seeks to centralize power in a single leader or party. This leader or party is usually an absolute ruler who has complete control over the government and the people.

• Nationalism: Fascism emphasizes national unity, pride, and identity above all else. It seeks to create a sense of solidarity among the people by promoting national pride and loyalty to the nation.

• Militarism: Fascism glorifies war and military strength as a way to achieve power and glory for the nation. It is often associated with militaristic rhetoric and aggressive foreign policies.

• Anti-Communism: Fascism is typically opposed to communism, which it views as a threat to the nation’s security and identity.

• Anti-Democracy: Fascism opposes democracy and views it as a weak form of government. It seeks to replace democracy with an authoritarian system of government.

• Anti-Individualism: Fascism seeks to create a unified national identity by suppressing individual rights and freedoms. It views individualism as a threat to national unity and cohesion.

• Anti-Liberalism: Fascism opposes liberalism and views it as a corrupting force. It seeks to replace liberal values with a more authoritarian and conservative ideology.

• Social Darwinism: Fascism is based on the belief that the strongest should survive and the weak should be eliminated. It seeks to create a hierarchical social structure where the fittest are rewarded and the weakest are punished.

• Racist Ideology: Fascism is often associated with racism and xenophobia. It seeks to create a sense of racial superiority by promoting the interests of a particular ethnic group over others.

• Censorship: Fascism seeks to control the flow of information by censoring the press and other forms of media. It also seeks to control public opinion by suppressing dissent and criticism.

• Corporatism: Fascism seeks to create a partnership between the government and large corporations in order to create a powerful economic base.

• Totalitarianism: Fascism seeks to create a single, unified state where all aspects of life are controlled by the government. It seeks to eliminate any form of dissent or opposition to the government.

Certain common measures that were taken in boht Italy and Germany are :

In Italy:

The March on Rome in 1922, where Mussolini and his fascist supporters marched on the capital, leading to his appointment as Prime Minister
The formation of the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919, which was the precursor to the National Fascist Party
The passing of the Acerbo Law in 1923, which gave extra seats in the parliament to the party with the most votes
The suppression of civil liberties, including freedom of speech and press, and the establishment of secret police force, the Fasci di Combattimento
The adoption of anti-Semitic laws, such as the 1938 Racial Laws, which restricted the rights of Jews and other minorities

In Germany:

The Beer Hall Putsch in 1923, an attempted coup d’etat led by Hitler and the Nazi party
The Enabling Act of 1933, which gave Hitler dictatorial powers
The formation of the SS and Gestapo, secret police force, and the suppression of civil liberties
The Nuremberg Laws of 1935, which stripped Jews and other minorities of their civil rights
The Kristallnacht in 1938, a night of coordinated attacks against Jews, their homes and businesses.
The persecution and extermination of Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, and other groups deemed undesirable by the Nazi regime through the Holocaust.

“Comparison of the fascist regime in Italy with the National Socialist regime of Germany is almost inevitable. The similarities are obvious, but there is one point of difference which is worth mentioning.” Comment. [1991, 20 Marks]

Characteristics of Fascism
Difference ?

! Similarities given in above answer.

It is true that comparison of the fascist regime in Italy with the National Socialist (Nazi) regime of Germany is almost inevitable as both regimes were characterized by a one-party dictatorship led by a single leader, suppression of political opposition and civil liberties, use of propaganda to promote nationalist ideologies, aggressive foreign policies and persecution of minority groups.

However, there is one point of difference which is worth mentioning, and that is the extent of the persecution of minority groups. While both regimes targeted Jews and other minorities, the Holocaust, the systematic extermination of Jews and other groups carried out by the Nazi regime in Germany, was much more severe and systematic than the persecution of minority groups in Italy. This is a key point of differentiation between the fascist regime in Italy and the National Socialist regime of Germany.

Roger Griffin, in his book “The Nature of Fascism” argues that while both regimes were characterized by a one-party dictatorship led by a single leader, suppression of political opposition and civil liberties, use of propaganda to promote nationalist ideologies, aggressive foreign policies and persecution of minority groups, the Holocaust, the systematic extermination of Jews and other groups carried out by the Nazi regime in Germany, was much more severe and systematic than the persecution of minority groups in Italy. He notes that the Holocaust was not a part of the fascist project in Italy, but rather a particular form of genocidal extremism that was specific to Nazi Germany.

On the other hand, Robert O. Paxton in his book “The Anatomy of Fascism” defines fascism as “a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy, and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion.” He also highlights that in Italy, the persecution of Jews was less systematic than in Germany. He argues that while the fascist regime in Italy and National Socialist regime of Germany shared many similarities, but the persecution of minority groups was more severe and systematic in Germany than in Italy.

Italy

‘Corporate State’ was Mussolini’s answer to socio-political problems of his country. Elucidate. [1995, 60 Marks]

Why Mussolini came to power?

Socio-Political problems in Italy before Mussolini.

• Unstable government: Italy had a long history of government instability before Mussolini, with over 60 changes of government in the period between 1861 and 1922.

• Weak economy: Italy had a weak economy, with high levels of poverty, unemployment, and inflation.

• Social unrest: This was due to the large gap between the wealthy and the poor, leading to strikes, riots, and other forms of social unrest.

• Regional divisions: Italy was divided into several regions and states, which often had conflicting interests and goals.

• Lack of political unity: Italy lacked a unified political system, with different political parties often competing for power.

• Weak military: Italy had a weak military, which was unable to defend the country against foreign aggression.

• Poor international relations: Italy had poor relations with other countries, leading to diplomatic isolation.

How corporate state tried to solve these problems.

• Corporate State: Mussolini’s answer to socio-political problems of Italy was the concept of the ‘Corporate State’. This was a form of authoritarian rule, in which the state was organised into a series of corporations representing different economic, social and professional interests.

• Laws and Policies: Mussolini’s regime passed a number of laws and policies to implement the Corporate State. These included the ‘Law of Corporations’ in 1927, which established the legal basis for the Corporate State, and the ‘Charter of Labour’ in 1927, which set out the rights and duties of employers and workers.

• Power of the State: The Corporate State gave the state immense power over the economy and society. It allowed Mussolini to control the economy, set wages and prices, and regulate the behaviour of employers and workers. It also gave the state the power to intervene in the affairs of businesses and to control the production, distribution and pricing of goods.

• Control of Unions: He passed laws that gave the state the power to regulate the activities of unions, including their right to strike. This helped to ensure that the state had control over the labour market.

• Control of the Press: He passed laws that gave the state the power to censor the press and to control the content of newspapers and magazines. This helped to ensure that the state had control over public opinion.

• Social Control: He passed laws that gave the state the power to regulate the activities of political parties, religious organisations, and cultural institutions. This helped to ensure that the state had control over the social life of the Italian people.

• Propaganda: He passed laws that gave the state the power to control the content of films, radio programmes, and other forms of media. This helped to ensure that the state had control over the way the Italian people viewed the world.

• Economic Control: He passed laws that gave the state the power to regulate the banking system, the stock exchange, and the currency. This helped to ensure that the state had control over the economy of the country.

“The roots of the rise of Fascism lay in Peace Treaties.” Comment. [2003, 20 Marks]

The government of Germany and Hitler used the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles to gain support for fascism by portraying the treaty as a humiliation and betrayal of Germany. They argued that the treaty’s imposed heavy penalties on Germany, such as territorial losses, reparations, and limitations on military spending, were unjust and had led to the country’s economic and political decline. They also portrayed the treaty as a product of a conspiracy by the victorious powers to weaken and humiliate Germany.

One of the ways in which the government and Hitler used the treaty was by emphasizing the territorial losses imposed on Germany. The treaty required Germany to cede Alsace-Lorraine to France, the German-populated territories of the former Austro-Hungarian Empire to Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Italy, and its overseas colonies to other powers. This led to a sense of betrayal and loss among many Germans, particularly those living in these territories, who felt that they had been unjustly separated from their motherland.

Hitler and the Nazi party capitalized on this sense of betrayal by promoting an irredentist and revisionist agenda that called for the return of these territories to Germany and the revision of the treaty. For example, in his speeches, Hitler often emphasized the need to reclaim the lost territories, such as the Sudetenland, and how the treaty had left Germany with “unjust” borders.

Another way in which the government and Hitler used the treaty was by emphasizing the reparations imposed on Germany. The treaty required Germany to pay large sums of money in reparations for the damage caused by the war. This led to a severe economic downturn in Germany, with high levels of inflation and unemployment. The government and Hitler portrayed these economic problems as the result of the treaty’s imposed reparations and argued that they were unjust and crippling the German economy.

Hitler and the Nazi party capitalized on the economic crisis by promising to restore prosperity and national pride. Hitler argued that the treaty’s imposed reparations were an attempt to keep Germany weak and that by leaving the treaty, Germany could return to greatness.

The government and Hitler also used the treaty’s imposed limitations on military spending to gain support for fascism. The treaty required Germany to disarm, abolished the German General Staff, and limited the size of the German army, navy, and airforce. This led to a sense of military humiliation among many Germans, particularly those in the military, who felt that the treaty had left Germany defenseless.

Hitler and the Nazi party capitalized on this sense of military humiliation by promoting a militaristic and expansionist agenda. Hitler argued that the treaty’s limitations on military spending were an attempt to keep Germany weak and that by leaving the treaty, Germany could rebuild its military and return to greatness. He also emphasized the need to have a strong military to protect the country from the perceived threats from other nations.

The government and Hitler also used the War Guilt Clause to gain support for fascism. The treaty held Germany solely responsible for the outbreak of the war, which led to a sense of national betrayal among many Germans. The government and Hitler portrayed this as a conspiracy by the victorious powers to blame Germany for the war and to weaken and humiliate the country.

Hitler and the Nazi party capitalized on this sense of national betrayal by promoting a revisionist and nationalist agenda that denied the war guilt and called for the revision of the treaty. Hitler in his speeches often emphasized the injustice of the War Guilt Clause and how Germany had been betrayed by the other nations.

They used the treaty’s imposed limitations on the size of the German economy to gain support for fascism. The treaty imposed high tariffs and trade barriers, which led to a decline in the German economy, and also required the transfer of German economic assets and technology to other powers. The government and Hitler portrayed these economic problems as the result of the treaty’s imposed limitations and argued that they were unjust and crippling the German economy.

Hitler and the Nazi party capitalized on the economic crisis by promising to restore economic prosperity and national pride. Hitler argued that the treaty’s imposed limitations on the economy were an attempt to keep Germany weak and that by leaving the treaty and pursuing autarky, Germany could achieve economic self-sufficiency and return to greatness. In his speeches, Hitler often criticized the treaty’s economic provisions and emphasized the need for a strong economy to achieve national greatness.

In addition to using the treaty’s provisions as a means to gain support, the government and Hitler also used propaganda and censorship to control the narrative and shape public opinion. They controlled the media and education system to promote their own version of events and to suppress any dissenting views. They also used public rallies, parades, and other events to promote their message and to create a sense of national unity and purpose.

For example, in his speeches, Hitler often emphasized the need to overcome the divisions within the country and to achieve national unity. He also used the slogan “Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer ” (One People, One Empire, One Leader) to promote the idea of a united and strong Germany that would rise above the perceived injustices of the treaty.

The government of Germany and Hitler used the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles to gain support for fascism by portraying the treaty as a humiliation and betrayal of Germany. They emphasized the territorial losses, reparations, limitations on military spending, the War Guilt Clause, and limitations on the size of the German economy imposed by the treaty as unjust and as the cause of Germany’s economic and political decline. They promoted an irredentist and revisionist agenda that called for the return of these territories to Germany and the revision of the treaty. They also used propaganda and censorship to control the narrative and shape public opinion. They used public rallies, parades, and other events to promote their message and to create a sense of national unity and purpose. This allowed them to gain support from a population that was disillusioned and looking for a way out of the economic and political crisis.

Richard J. Evans, in his book “The Coming of the Third Reich”, argues that the treaty’s provisions did play a significant role in the rise of fascism in Germany. He writes, “The Versailles settlement, with its heavy reparations and territorial losses, was widely perceived in Germany as a ‘dictated peace’ that had humiliated the country and left it in a state of economic and political crisis.” (Evans, 2003)
Ian Kershaw, in his book “Hitler: 1889-1936 Hubris”, also argues that the treaty’s provisions contributed to the rise of fascism in Germany. He writes, “The harsh terms of the Versailles Treaty, dictated to a prostrate Germany, had fueled an almost universal sense of resentment and betrayal in the country, and provided a fertile breeding ground for extremist movements of both Right and Left.” (Kershaw, 1998)
However, other historians such as David Welch in his book “Hitler: Profile of a Dictator” suggests that while the treaty’s provisions contributed to the rise of fascism in Germany, they were not the sole or even the main cause. He writes, “It is difficult to exaggerate the damage caused by the Treaty of Versailles, but it is equally difficult to exaggerate the extent to which the treaty was used by Hitler as a propaganda weapon to further his own ends.” (Welch, 1991)

Discuss the main characteristics of Fascism. [2007, 60 Marks]

Characteristics of Fascism

Examine the circumstances which led to the overthrow of democracy and the establishment of Fascist dictatorship in Italy. [2017, 20 Marks]

Why Mussolini came to power?

The circumstances that led to the overthrow of democracy and the establishment of a Fascist dictatorship in Italy were complex. The country had been struggling with economic and social issues since the end of World War I, with high unemployment, inflation, and political instability. This situation was exacerbated by the Great Depression, which caused further economic hardship and political unrest.

The rise of Fascism in Italy was a direct response to this instability. The Fascist Party, led by Benito Mussolini, was able to gain support from the people by promising to restore order and prosperity to the country. Mussolini was also able to capitalize on the widespread dissatisfaction with the liberal government and its failure to address the country’s problems.

In 1922, Mussolini and his Fascist Party were able to gain control of the government and establish a Fascist dictatorship. This was done through a series of political maneuvers, including the passage of the Acerbo Law, which gave the Fascist Party a majority in the Italian Parliament. The Fascist dictatorship was then able to consolidate its power through censorship, propaganda, and the use of violence.

The overthrow of democracy and the establishment of a Fascist dictatorship in Italy had a lasting impact on the country and the world. It served as a model for other authoritarian regimes that sought to gain and maintain power through similar tactics.

Timeline:

1919-1920: After WWI, Italy experiences a period of political and social unrest, with a weak government and a divided parliament.
1922: The Fascist Party, led by Benito Mussolini, gains power in Italy.
1925: Mussolini establishes a totalitarian regime and abolishes civil liberties.
1926: Mussolini dissolves the Italian parliament and declares himself the sole ruler of Italy.
1929: Mussolini and the Fascist Party consolidate their power by passing laws that restrict freedom of speech, assembly, and the press.
1934: After a series of electoral victories, the Fascist Party gains a majority in the Italian parliament, allowing Mussolini to pass laws without opposition.
1936: Mussolini abolishes all political parties, except the Fascist Party, and establishes a one-party state.

Germany

Critically examine the main features of the foreign policy of Nazi Germany. [1982, 60 Marks]

Hitlers Foreign Policy

[[7.3 WWII Causes and Consequences#Hitlers Foreign Policy]]

Adolf Hitler is one of the most infamous dictators in history, and his foreign policy is often seen as one of the most aggressive and aggressive in modern history. During his reign, Hitler sought to expand German territory and influence, and he did so through a combination of military and diplomatic means. His foreign policy was aimed at creating a “Greater Germany” that would dominate Europe.

Hitler’s foreign policy was based on four main principles. First, he sought to expand German territory and influence in Europe. Second, he sought to create an alliance with Italy and Japan, which he dubbed the “Axis Alliance”. Third, he sought to weaken and eventually destroy the Soviet Union. Lastly, he sought to create a “New Order” in Europe, in which Germany would be the dominant power.

Hitler’s aggressive foreign policy began with the occupation of Austria in 1938. This was followed by the occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939. In 1940, Hitler invaded Poland, and this was followed by the invasion of France and the Low Countries in 1941. In 1941, Hitler also invaded the Soviet Union, and this was followed by the invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece in 1941.

Hitler also sought to create an alliance with Italy and Japan, which he dubbed the “Axis Alliance”. This alliance was formed in 1940, and it was aimed at creating a united front against the Soviet Union and the Western powers. The Axis Alliance was successful in creating a united front against the Soviet Union and the Western powers, and it was also successful in weakening the Soviet Union and eventually destroying it.

Hitler also sought to create a “New Order” in Europe, in which Germany would be the dominant power. This was done through the creation of a new currency, the Reichsmark, and the introduction of a new system of government, the National Socialist German Workers’ Party. Hitler also sought to create a new social order in which the German people would be united under a single racial and cultural identity.

In order to achieve these goals, Hitler took a number of measures. He sought to increase German military power by building up the Wehrmacht, the German armed forces. He also sought to increase German economic power by creating a new economic system, the Four Year Plan. He also sought to create an alliance with Italy and Japan, which he dubbed the “Axis Alliance”. Finally, he sought to weaken and eventually destroy the Soviet Union.

A.J.P. Taylor, in his book “The Origins of the Second World War” argues that Hitler’s foreign policy was primarily driven by opportunism and a desire for lebensraum (living space) for the German people. He writes, “Hitler’s foreign policy was not a blueprint for conquest but a series of reactions to opportunities as they arose.” (Taylor, 1961)
Gerhard Weinberg, in his book “A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II” argues that Hitler’s foreign policy was based on aggressive expansion and the pursuit of a racist empire. He writes, “Hitler’s foreign policy was not the result of a rational calculation of national interest but of his racist and ideological goals.” (Weinberg, 1994)
Ian Kershaw, in his book “Hitler: 1889-1936 Hubris” argues that Hitler’s foreign policy was driven by a combination of ideological and pragmatic considerations. He writes, “Hitler’s foreign policy was driven by his ideological vision, but it was also shaped by the opportunities and constraints he faced.” (Kershaw, 1998)
Robert O. Paxton in his book “The Anatomy of Fascism” argues that Hitler’s foreign policy was driven by a desire to restore German prestige and power. He writes, “Hitler’s foreign policy was an attempt to restore the prestige and power of Germany, which had been humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles.” (Paxton, 2004)
John Mearsheimer in his book “The Tragedy of Great Power Politics” argues that Hitler’s foreign policy was driven by his belief in the need for Lebensraum and his ambitions to create a “Greater Germany.” He writes, “Hitler’s foreign policy was driven by his belief that Germany needed Lebensraum and that the only way to achieve it was through aggressive expansion.” (Mearsheimer, 2001)
Richard J. Evans in his book “The Third Reich in Power” argues that Hitler’s foreign policy was driven by his obsession with the extermination of Jews and other perceived enemies of the state. He writes, “Hitler’s foreign policy was driven by his obsession with the extermination of Jews and other perceived enemies of the state, and this ultimately led to the outbreak of World War II.” (Evans, 2005)

Hitler was “a creature flung to the top by the tides of revolutionary change, or the embodiment of the collective unconsciousness of a people obsessed with violence and death.” Comment. [1984, 20 Marks]

Disadvantages

“There was an element of system in Hitler’s foreign policy…. His outlook was continental.” Comment. [1995, 20 Marks]

Hitlers Foreign Policy

Systematic Nature of Hitlers Foreign Policy

Hitler’s foreign policy was systematic because it was based on his ideological beliefs, which were rooted in his racialist and nationalist views. He believed in the superiority of the German nation and its right to expand its borders and to bring the German people together into a single nation. He also believed that the German people had a right to self-determination and that Germany should be the dominant power in Europe. As a result, Hitler sought to expand Germany’s power and influence in Europe through alliances, conquests, and the establishment of a German-dominated Europe. He also sought to secure Germany’s borders and to protect its citizens from external threats. All of these goals were implemented through a systematic policy of aggressive diplomacy, military expansion, and economic exploitation.

Continental Outlook

Hitler’s foreign policy was based on the idea of Lebensraum (living space) for the German people. This meant expanding German territory by taking land from other countries in Europe. Hitler’s foreign policy was aggressive and expansionist, and he was willing to use military force to achieve his goals. He also sought to build alliances with other countries, particularly those in Eastern Europe, in order to further his ambitions.

Hitler’s foreign policy was driven by a number of consistent goals and ideologies.

One example of this is the idea of Lebensraum, or “living space,” which Hitler believed was necessary for the survival and expansion of the German people. Historian Ian Kershaw, in his book “Hitler: 1889-1936 Hubris,” states that “Hitler’s ultimate goal was the acquisition of Lebensraum, or ‘living space,’ in Eastern Europe, at the expense of the Soviet Union.” (Kershaw, 1998)

Another example is Hitler’s anti-Semitism, which played a major role in shaping his foreign policy. Historian Richard J. Evans in his book “The Third Reich in Power” argues that “Hitler’s foreign policy was driven by his anti-Semitic beliefs, which led him to target Jews and other minorities for persecution and extermination.” (Evans, 2005)

Furthermore, Hitler’s foreign policy also had a clear anti-communist ideology, historian John Mearsheimer in his book “The Tragedy of Great Power Politics” argues that “Hitler saw communism as a threat to the German way of life and sought to eliminate it in Europe.” (Mearsheimer, 2001)

What were the weaknesses and difficulties of the Weimer Republic? How did Hitler succeed in establishing his dictatorship? [2004, 60 Marks]

Disadvantages

Weakness of the Weimar Republic:

Lack of a strong central government: The Weimar Republic was a parliamentary democracy, meaning that the power of the government was divided between the executive and legislative branches. This meant that the government had limited control over its own policies and was unable to respond quickly and effectively to crises.
Economic instability: The Weimar Republic was plagued by hyperinflation, which caused the value of the German mark to plummet and created a severe economic crisis. This led to high unemployment and poverty, which further weakened the government’s ability to respond to crises.
Weak foreign policy: The Weimar Republic was unable to assert itself on the international stage, and was unable to negotiate treaties and alliances with other countries. This left Germany vulnerable to the ambitions of other nations.
Political divisions: The Weimar Republic was divided between the left and the right, with the Social Democrats and the Communists on the left and the Nationalists and the Nazis on the right. This made it difficult for the government to pass legislation, as any legislation had to be approved by both sides.

• Difficulties of the Weimar Republic:

Unstable coalition governments: The Weimar Republic was unable to form stable coalition governments, as the parties on the left and right were unable to cooperate. This led to frequent changes in government and made it difficult for the government to pass laws and implement policies.
Unpopular policies: The Weimar Republic implemented unpopular policies, such as the introduction of the rent control law, which led to widespread public discontent. This further weakened the government’s ability to respond to crises.
Political violence: The Weimar Republic was plagued by political violence, as the Nazis and Communists engaged in street battles and attempted to overthrow the government. This further weakened the government’s ability to respond to crises.
The rise of the Nazis: The Weimar Republic was unable to contain the rise of the Nazis, who used the weaknesses of the government to gain power. The Nazis eventually seized power in 1933, ending the Weimar Republic.
International isolation: The Weimar Republic was isolated from the international community, as other countries refused to recognize the new government. This prevented the Weimar Republic from negotiating treaties and alliances, leaving it vulnerable to the ambitions of other nations.

Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP) were able to exploit the weaknesses of the Weimar Republic to establish a dictatorship in Germany in the early 1930s. Here are some examples of how this was done:

Economic Turmoil: The Weimar Republic was plagued by economic turmoil, including hyperinflation and high unemployment. Hitler and the NSDAP were able to exploit this by blaming the economic problems on the Weimar government, Jews, and other perceived enemies, and promising to improve the economy if they were in power.
Political Instability: The Weimar Republic was known for its political instability, with a number of different coalition governments formed during the time period. Hitler and the NSDAP were able to exploit this by portraying themselves as a strong, stable alternative to the weak Weimar government.
Social Unrest: The Weimar Republic was also marked by social unrest, with a number of different groups and movements, including communists, nationalists, and socialists, vying for power. Hitler and the NSDAP were able to exploit this by portraying themselves as the only force that could bring order to the country and restore national pride.
Use of Propaganda: Hitler and the NSDAP used propaganda effectively to gain support and consolidate power. They used newspapers, films, rallies, and speeches to spread their message and demonize their opponents.
Use of Violence: Hitler and the NSDAP used violence and intimidation to silence their opponents and consolidate their power. For example, the SA (Stormtroopers) were used to attack political opponents, including communists, socialists, and Jews.
Enabling laws: Hitler and his party used legal means, such as the Enabling Act of 1933 which gave Hitler the power to pass laws without the Reichstag’s consent, to consolidate their power and establish a dictatorship.

How did the policy of appeasement escalate the problem of Nazi aggrandizement? [2011, 30 Marks]

[Appeasement](onenote:.. Part%20IIWorld%20Wars. one #WWII %20%20causes%20and%20consequences&section-id={79AFC6B8-DB81-496F-83B7-6A22E8D6C4B1}&page-id={90538CF4-1C07-4144-A018-4E3A5F09126C}&object-id={3BD08C26-5BB2-427A-8BE7-35F911F1DB85}&6B&base-path= https://d.docs.live.net/bbc8be5bd337910c/Documents/History%20Optional/World%20History )

The policy of appeasement refers to the policy of giving in to the demands of an aggressive power in order to maintain peace and avoid conflict. In the context of Nazi Germany, the policy of appeasement refers to the actions of the British and French governments in the 1930s to allow Hitler to expand German territory and rearm without taking military action to stop him.

The policy of appeasement escalated the problem of Nazi aggrandizement in several ways:

Encouraged Aggression: The policy of appeasement sent the message to Hitler that he could continue to expand German territory and rearm without facing significant resistance. This encouraged him to become increasingly aggressive in his territorial demands.
Delayed Action: By allowing Hitler to expand German territory and rearm without taking military action, the policy of appeasement delayed the necessary action to stop him. This allowed Hitler to build a stronger military and gain more territory, making it more difficult to stop him later on.
Undermined Diplomatic Efforts: The policy of appeasement undermined diplomatic efforts to stop Hitler and address the problem of Nazi aggrandizement. By giving in to Hitler’s demands, the British and French governments sent the message that they were not committed to stopping him, which weakened their diplomatic efforts to do so.
Loss of Credibility: The policy of appeasement resulted in a loss of credibility for the British and French governments. By repeatedly giving in to Hitler’s demands, they lost the trust of other nations and their own people, making it more difficult to rally support for military action against Hitler later on.
Lack of Unity: The policy of appeasement also led to a lack of unity among the European countries, as the British and French governments pursued different policies towards Hitler and his demands. This weakened the ability of the European countries to present a united front against Nazi aggrandizement.

In summary, the policy of appeasement escalated the problem of Nazi aggrandizement by encouraging Hitler’s aggression, delaying action to stop him, undermining diplomatic efforts, resulting in a loss of credibility, and a lack of unity among European countries.

Timeline of Appeasement :

1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany. The British government under Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald and the French government under Prime Minister Édouard Daladier begin a policy of appeasement towards Hitler.

1935: Hitler reintroduces conscription and begins to rebuild the German military in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. The British and French governments do not take any significant action to stop him.

1936: Hitler sends German troops into the Rhineland, again in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. The British and French governments do not take any significant action to stop him.

1937: The British government under Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain begins a policy of closer engagement with Hitler, believing that he can be appeased.

1938: Hitler demands the annexation of the Sudetenland, a region in Czechoslovakia with a large German population. The British and French governments agree to the demand at the Munich Conference, believing that it will bring peace.

1939: Hitler demands the annexation of the rest of Czechoslovakia. The British and French governments do not take military action to stop him. Hitler signs a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union, which allows him to invade Poland without fear of Soviet intervention.

1940: Hitler invades Denmark, Norway, Belgium, the Netherlands, and France. The British and French governments are unable to stop him.

1941: Hitler invades Yugoslavia and Greece. The British and French governments are unable to stop him.

1941: Hitler invades the Soviet Union. Op Barbarossa.

A.J.P. Taylor, in his book “The Origins of the Second World War” argues that the policy of appeasement was a rational response to the difficult situation faced by the British and French governments. He writes, “Appeasement was not the desperate gamble of weak men, but a policy chosen from a variety of alternatives.” (Taylor, 1961)
Gerhard Weinberg, in his book “A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II” argues that the policy of appeasement was a mistake that allowed Hitler to gain more power and territory. He writes, “Appeasement was a tragic mistake that allowed Hitler to gain more power and territory, making it more difficult to stop him later on.” (Weinberg, 1994)
Ian Kershaw, in his book “Hitler: 1889-1936 Hubris” argues that the policy of appeasement was a result of both idealistic and realpolitik considerations. He writes, “Appeasement was a policy driven by a combination of idealistic and realpolitik considerations.” (Kershaw, 1998)
Robert O. Paxton in his book “The Anatomy of Fascism” argues that the policy of appeasement was motivated by a desire to avoid war. He writes, “Appeasement was a policy motivated by a desire to avoid war and maintain peace.” (Paxton, 2004)
John Mearsheimer in his book “The Tragedy of Great Power Politics” argues that the policy of appeasement was driven by the belief that Hitler could be placated and that his territorial ambitions could be limited. He writes, “Appeasement was driven by the belief that Hitler could be placated and that his territorial ambitions could be limited.” (Mearsheimer, 2001)
Richard J. Evans in his book “The Third Reich in Power” argues that the policy of appeasement was a result of a failure to understand the true nature of Hitler’s regime and its aggressive aims. He writes, “Appeasement was a result of a failure to understand the true nature of Hitler’s regime and its aggressive aims.” (Evans, 2005)

In summary, Historians have different views about the nature and effectiveness of the policy of appeasement towards Nazi Germany in the 1930s. Some like A.J.P. Taylor argues that it was a rational response to the difficult situation faced by the British and French governments, others like Gerhard Weinberg argue it was a mistake that allowed Hitler to gain more power and territory, Ian Kershaw argues that it was a result of both idealistic and realpolitik considerations, Robert O. Paxton argues that it was motivated by a desire to avoid war, John Mearsheimer argues that it was driven by the belief that Hitler could be placated and that his territorial ambitions could be limited, and Richard J. Evans argues that it was a result of a failure to understand the true nature of Hitler’s regime and its aggressive aims.