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Late 17th Century Crisis and the Revolts

Late 17th Century Crisis and the Revolts

Section titled “Late 17th Century Crisis and the Revolts”

2020-04-27 12:31 :56

17th Century Crisis/ Deccan Ulcer : The Deccan and Mughals Pto 1657

Section titled “17th Century Crisis/ Deccan Ulcer : The Deccan and Mughals Pto 1657”
  • #todo
  • Conquest of Deccan by Mughals tooks almost 100 years (1596-1687)
  • Bahmani sultanate had been disintegrated resulting into 3 states Ahmednagar, Bijapur and Golconda. They defeated Vijayanagar empire in 1565 and constantly strifed between each other.
  • There were also ethnic and sectarian violence b/w nobles of foreign origin called Afaqis who were mostly shias and Deccanis (Afghans and Habshis) who were sunnis.
  • Rise of Mahdawism in Ahmadnagar further complicated sectarian scenario there.
  • Marathas had been recruited as bargir/auxiliaries in the army and Marathi Brahmans dominated the revenue department at all levels.
  • However, all these elements considered Mughals as foreigners and this later acted as a ralllying point for them.

Conquest of Berar, Khandesh and Parts of Ahmednagar

Section titled “Conquest of Berar, Khandesh and Parts of Ahmednagar”

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  • Nizam Shahi dynasty had fallen and their was internal strife among the nobles as to who would be the successor of Ahmadnagar.
  • 2 primary rivals were Chand Bibi who supported the claim of his son Bahadur and Miyan Manju supported by the Deccani nobles.
  • Miyan Manjus asked for Akbars help to be throned. When Mughal forces reached Ahmednagar Manju changed sides to Chand Bibi who asked fro Bijapur and Golconda for help.
  • Their combined forces were defated and Berar ceded by Chand Bibi to the Mughals
  • She later with the help of other kingdoms tried to get Berar back but their forces were defeated. And later Ahmadnagar fort was surrendered.
  • Murtaza II was accepted as legitimate successor of Ahmadnagar. Malik Ambar rose as his confidant during this time. Who was defeated and surrendered the capital Ahmednagar.
  • Bahadur the ruler of Khandesh was also defeated. Akbar wanted to capture the powerful fort of Asirgarh and secure the Gujarat sea port.
  • Daughter of Bijapur sultan was married to prince Daniyal who died shortly afterwards so Mughal Bijapur friendship never consolidated.

Rise of Malik Ambar 1601 - 27

Section titled “Rise of Malik Ambar 1601 - 27”
  • Ambar was an abyssinian born in Ethiopia. Later he became the chief man of Murtaza Nizam Shah II and began to be called a Peshwa.
  • He enlisted Deccani sodiers including Afghans and Habshis and also the Maratha troopers.
  • With his guerilla tactics he made it difficult for the Mughals to consolidate their position in the Deccan.
  • In 1601 an alliance b/w Abdur Rahim Khan i Khanan and Ambar was concluded that allowed him to deal with his internal rivals.
  • Murtaza was deposed and killed. Akbar also died and Jahangir was preoccupied with Khusrau’s rebellion.
  • Ambar during this time expelled the Mughals from Berar, Balaghat and Ahmednagar. Ambar made a pact with Adil Shah of Bijapur and forced counterattacking Mughal forces.
  • Successive Mughal Campaigns were also defeated.
  • Malik Ambar in this time became arrogant and alienated many of his allies.
  • Khan i Khana befriended these erstwhile allies of Ambar who were mostly Marathas and defeated combined forces of Ahmadnagar, Bijapur and Golconda in 1616.
  • Ambar had to submit and most of his recently occupied territories were surrendered.
  • Jahangir was soft on the Deccanis due to Iranian Safavid Shah Abbas I’s requests. He also did not want to get caught in their internal rivalry or extend Mughal commitments in the Deccan.
  • A rift b/w Ambar and Adil Shah and Jahangir decided to favour Bijapur.
  • Ambar defeated this coalition surpising their force in 1624. His prestige after this reached its pinnacle.
  • Ambar died at around 1627.
Administration of Malik Ambar
Section titled “Administration of Malik Ambar”
  • He introduced Todar Mal’s land revenue system. Fixed boundaries of villages, measured and setteld rates of revenue payment.
  • Introduced the Zabti system of giving land contract/ Ijara.
  • Land was measured with chains and progressive tax on lands newely brought under cultivation.
  • Paid close attention to problems of local deshmukhs and others related to land cultivation.

Extinction of Ahmadnagar and Acceptance of Mughal Suzerainty by Bijapur and Golconda

Section titled “Extinction of Ahmadnagar and Acceptance of Mughal Suzerainty by Bijapur and Golconda”
  • Shah Jahan became emperor and one of the problems that he faced was the recovery of territories in Deccan lost to Nizam Shahi rulers of Ahmednagar.
  • SJ made a pact with Bijapur to ceded 1/3rd of Ahmednagar territories against their cooperation. He also asked Maratha sardars to join him.
  • Adil Shah accepted this since he was also upset with Ambar’s destruction of Nauraspur and loss of Sholapur. Shahji Bhonsle also joined SJ.
  • SJ moved to Burhanpur and wrested Ahmednangar. But after capturing most of it except Parenda the capital they refused to cede territories to Adil Shah.
  • The suspicious Shah then joined hands with the Nizam Shahi. Mughals retreated from Parenda.
  • Fath Khan was raised as the ruler but he secretly joined/surrendered to the Mughals and jagirs of Shahji Bhonsle given to him. Shahji then left Mughal service.
  • Mahabat Khan the Mughal governor of Deccan invested forts of Daulatabad and deposed the Nizam Shahi dynasty.
  • But Shahji Bhonsle kept on harassing Mughal soldiers after finding a Nizam Shahi prince.
  • After a while most of the anti Mughal group were killed and Adil Shah came to recognise Mughal Suzerainty.
  • SJ then entered into a treaty with Qutub Shahi’s of Golconda and agreed to include name of Shah Jahan in the khutba.
  • SJ realised the objective of Akbar. Mughal Suzerainty was accepted over length and breadth of the country.

Shah Jahan and the Deccan (1636-57)

Section titled “Shah Jahan and the Deccan (1636-57)”
  • The areas of Karnataka was divided among Nayaks of Tanjore, Jinji and Madurai and Raya of Vijayanagra.
  • A series of campaigns were taken by Bijapur and Golconda against them.
  • Mughals remainded neutral to this and at times arbitrated during disputes b/w them.
  • The Rayal and Qutub Shahis asked for Mughal intervention in dividing Karnataka b/w Bijapur and Golconda.
  • There was gradual change in Mughal benevolent neutrality after 1648. Shahji Bhonsle was brought under Mansabdari system again in order to woo powerful Maratha sardars to their side.
  • This culminated into the invasion of Bijapur and Golconda in 1657 and 1656 respectively.
  • The Angry exchange of letters b/w Viceroy of Deccan Aurangzeb and Shah Jahan allude to Mughal inability to deal with financial affairs of the Deccan.
  • SJ refused to meet defict in Deccan from revenue of Malwa and Surat. SJ tried to force a part of booty as compensation for Mughal Neutrality. Next was territorial compensation for their Neutrality.
  • Dispute about decline in exchange rate b/w Rupee and hurt was used as a pretext of war In case of Golconda 1656.
  • For Bijapur death of Muhammad Adil Shah in 1656 and resulting confusion and arrear in payment of tribute and siding with Golconda in previous was led to war in 1657.
  • Amidst territorial and tribute disputes SJ instructed Aurangzeb to conquer Golconda after settling affair with Bijapur that was to be either Annexed or to recover the old territory and spare the rest of a hefty indemnity.
  • Aurangzeb tried to pursue a policy of all out conquest. The territories of Coromandel was export rich and significant enough to discard the treaties of 1636.
  • This dilemma and reversal of 1636 treaty caused a problem that Aurangzeb was not able to solve during his reign. It also questions the political sagacity of Shah Jahan and perhaps became the biggest mistake of his reign.

JN Sarkar : Conditions were created that for a union of hearts between the Mughals and Deccan states become a Psychological impossibility

Aurangzeb and the Deccani States (1658-87)

Section titled “Aurangzeb and the Deccani States (1658-87)”

First Phase 1658-1668

Section titled “First Phase 1658-1668”
  • 2 problems faced by A was rising power of Shivaji and problem of persuading Bijapur to give away promised territories of Ahmednangar by Treaty of 1636.
  • Jain Singh wanted a divide and rule policy to stem feud b/w Marathas and Bijapur and a forward policy to counter Maratha power. But due to limited resources his plans failed.
  • Jai Singh’s exepdition against Bijapur proved costly and he died in 1667. In 1668 Mughals secured Sholapur by Bribery.

Second Phase 1668-84

Section titled “Second Phase 1668-84”
  • A treid to stir up certain sections of nobles at Bijapur court for Bijapuri action against Marathas. He abandoned this policy when he was convinced that Deccan states would never join the Mughals.
  • Thus he went for complete annexation of both Deccani states.
  • During this period Shivaji was at the peak of his power and Golconda saw the rise of Madanna and Akhanna in Golconda who virutally ruled it till 1687 when the kingdom dissolved.
  • Madanna and Akhanna built an alliance with Shivaji to contain the Mughals.

Third Phase 1684-87

Section titled “Third Phase 1684-87”
  • It was marked by A belief that he could not achieve his objectives without first annexing the Deccani states.
  • A demaned Adil Shah to becmoe a vassal, allow safe passage to Mughal troops, supply a contingent of troops and cavalry and expelling of nobles who opposed Mughals.
  • Bijapur did not agree and was invaded after 18 months of siege and even with support from Sambhaji and Golconda it was defeated in 1686.
  • Next year Golconda was attacked for aiding Bijapur and Marathas and in handing over the entire administration of infidels Madanna and Akhanna.
  • There is a debate that wether annexation of Bijapur and Golconda was a result of growing crisis of Jagirdari system ie the shortage of pai-baqi lands>
    • No contemporary writers has said this.
    • Khafi Khan has said that be jagiri was caused after Bijapur and Golconda were annexed.
    • But it could have been one of the factors.

The Marathas, Aurangzeb and Deccan 1687-1707

Section titled “The Marathas, Aurangzeb and Deccan 1687-1707”
  • Initially A was able to put the Marathas on the defensive. This was aided by Sambhajis preoccupation with internal enemies and neighbours ie the Portuguese and Sidis.
  • In 1689 he was captured and executed as a rebel and infidel. This was A’s political mistake.
  • In the absence of a single rallying point Maratha sardars were free to plunder Mughal territories which made them all pervasive in the Deccan.
  • Rajaram was appointed king. He was forced to move to Gingee and continue his rebellion from their which in a way spread the Maratha rebellion.
  • While trying to annex Bijapur - Karnataka Zulfiqar Khan came into serious resistance from Santa Ghorpade and Dhanaji Jadhav. Who took Mughal nobles as prisoners for ransom.
  • A b/w 1700-1705 moved from one fort to other but he was too feeble and Maratha raids was taking toll of the Mughal army.
  • Raja Ram died in 1698 Tarabai his eldest widow proposed peace but A refused.
  • 1703 Aurangzeb opened negotiations agreeing to release Shahu who was at Satara but cancelled it uncertain about Maratha intentions.
  • By 1706 he realised the futility of war with them and retreated to Aurangabad.
  • A died in 1707 and lifet behing a distracted with multiple internal problems.

Revolts

Section titled “Revolts”
  • #todo

Rebellions of Shah Jahan/ Khurram

Section titled “Rebellions of Shah Jahan/ Khurram”
  • Persian threat to Qandahar and worsening health of Jahangir caused commotion and struggle for succession among his sons.
  • Shah Jahan had the brother of Jahangir Khusrau killed. He was asked to lead the expedition against Persian in Qandahar but he made a number of demands that were not fulfilled. Ascerbetic exchange of letters b/w him and Jahangir worsened the situation.
  • He was defeated in 1623 by the Imperialist forces and wandered till her reached Malik Ambar who gave him the task of removing Mughals from Burhanpur that he failed twice.
  • He became desperate and asked for forgiveness of Jahangir.

Mahabat Khans Sudden Coup

Section titled “Mahabat Khans Sudden Coup”
  • His powers, position and close association with Prince Parvez was considered a threat against Shah Jahan.
  • He seized the emperor while the royal camp was crossing Jhelum river on its way to Kabul. Nur Jahan escaped but later joined the emperor surrendering herself.
  • Later due to his growing unpopularity among the Rajput soldiers Mahabat Khan ran away and joined Shah Jahan.
  • Asaf kahn the father in law of Shah Jahan support by other nobles he made Nur Jahan a prisoner and urgently summoned him to come and occupy the throne.

Jats and Satnamis

Section titled “Jats and Satnamis”
  • Jats lived around the sides of river Jamuna having a strong sense of clan brotherhood and egalitarianism. This ended up in becoming a tribal association that was similar to a jirga but more hierarchical.
  • Jats were mostly peasant cultivators who often rose against perceived injustice.
  • 1667 Jats of Mathur rose against Aurangzeb under leadership of Gokla. They killed the Mughal Fauzdar of Mathura. He was defeated and killed after A moved from Agra to Delhi.
  • 1672 the Satnamis a sect of bairagis who had their own scripture who believed in Monotheis and condemned rituals and superstition rose.
  • They were mostly peasants, artisans and lower caste people. They defeated the local fauzdar and seized town of Narnaul and Bairat -> scanty grain supply in Delhi.
  • During this time Mughal attacked jat village of Sinsani and they rose in rebellion again this time under Rajaram.
  • There was growing animonsity with Rajputs and Jats the former being revenue collectors of the area.
  • Rajaram and Churaman led against Bishan Singh but were defeated.
  • Later Churaman was able to carve out s separate jat principality ousting the Rajputs.
  • [[12.2 Regional Principalities#Bharatpur |Continuation]]

Afghans

Section titled “Afghans”
  • Duringh Shah Jahans reign conflict w/ them was economic, political and religious.
  • 1667 Bhagu leader of Yusufzai tribe, proclaimed himself as king. The ambition of setting up a separate state of their own had started.
  • Raushanai religious movt provided intellectual and moral background to it.
  • Revolt spread into areas of Peshawar and Attock. It was repressed.
  • 1672 Afridi’s under Akmal Khan. They closed the Khyber pass and defeated and killed Chief Bakshi Amir Khan who had previously put down Bhagu’s revolt.
  • In 1674 Aurangzeb had to move to Peshawar to put it down.
  • It shows that the urge for regional freedom was not confined to sections of Hindus.
  • Revolt also relaxed Mughal pressure on Shivaji.

Sikhs

Section titled “Sikhs”
  • After Gur Arjans execution conflict b/w Guru Hargovind and Mughals took place during the Early years of Shah Jahans reign.

RP Tripathi says that it was almost insignificant.

  • First of these took place when the emperors hawk flew to the Gurus camp. Second one took place while trying to found a new city on river Beas. Third took place when Guru was presented with Stolen horses from imperial stable.
  • After a brief skirmish Guru had to leave Kartarpur and return to Kashmir hills.
  • The estd of an expanding community of Sikhs with a definite ethico-religious outlook deeply devoted to the Guru and determined to fight injustice had to at some point of time come into conflict with established authority.
  • The transforming hereditary character of Gurudom and recruitment of military and militarisation of the faith was the reason were additional factors.
  • Guru Har Kishan had blessed Dara Shikoh. His son Ram Rai was detained at Delhi.

According to AC Bannerji it is possible that emperor wanted to make future of Gurus more amenable to Mughal.

  • Guru Teg Bahadur was executed in 1974. A was in Afghanistan during this time. The violent opposition of the Guru was the reason cited by Islamic sources but Sikhs saw this as fight againt oppression.
  • His death caused the final transformation of Sikhism into an armed movt.
  • Guru Govind Singh retreated to Punjab and founded the Khalsa/ military brotherhood at Anandpur.

A/C to JS Grewal it sharpened the social identity of the Khalsa who already belonged to a distinct socio-religious fraternity.

  • Hill Rajas attacked the Guru at Anandpur but were forced to retreat they asked for Mughal intervention.
  • In the resulting war with Governor of Lahore Wazir Khan 2 of the Gurus sons were killed. 2 others were killed in another battle.
  • Guru then retreated to Talwandi and was not disturbed.
  • Guru created a weapon that would forge a Sikh state later.
  • Rebellion showed that egalitarian religious movt could turn into a political and militaristic movt.

Assessment of Aurangzeb

Section titled “Assessment of Aurangzeb”
  • Some historians have credited A with working hard to stem the forces of disinteigration represented by the Hindus and tried rallying the muslims for defence of the Empire.

Jadunath Sarkar has compared him to the Boa Constrictor who swalloed everything only to collapse under his own weight.

  • He had puritanical views wanted all Muslims to follow sharia and followed a discriminatory policy against non Muslims.
  • He remained an austere, aloof and remote figure which made him difficult to access by the nobles let alone the general public.
  • A attempt to use the Ulama to rally Muslims in support behind him was unsuccessful who proved to be corrupt and grasping.
  • His overemphasis on Qazis had made responsible officers of emprire jealous and envious since they had become very powerful.
  • He was a god fearing man who tried to combine wordly power with spiritual power.
  • Sometimes he overruled decrees of Sharia by his own secular decrees ‘zawabits’. He executed both Hindus and Muslim prisoner of war once.
  • He did not have a political bend of mind. He failed to understand the nature of Maratha movt or his action to annex Bijapur and Golconda.

Agrarian Crisis

Section titled “Agrarian Crisis”
  • Irfan Habib’s ‘Agrarian System of Mughal India’
  • Revenue system inherently flawed, kept at the highest possible rate for maintaining greatest military strength
  • Jagirdars frequently transferred - lack of farsightedness, loyalty to an area
  • No surplus left with peasantry to advance agri tech
  • dissent, revolts, migration

Mughal Relations with Europeans

Section titled “Mughal Relations with Europeans”
  • #todo

PYQs

Section titled “PYQs”

Late Seventeenth century crisis and the revolts

  1. Analyze the cause of the agrarian crisis of the Mughal Empire and briefly discuss the agrarian aspects of the peasant revolt against the Empire. [1982, 60m]
  1. “The major cause of revolts against the Mughal Empire during the latter half of the 17th century was economic, rather than religious.” Discuss. [2009, 30m]
  1. On the basis of the accounts of Europeans bring out the agrarian crisis of the 17th century CE India. [2013, 20m]