Land Grants

Land Grants

2020-04-27 11:58:25

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• Incidence of grants to Brahmana’s increased since 600 CE

Chronology of Appearance of Land Grant

• 4th-5th century : Central India, Northern Deccan and Andhra
• 5th-7th century : Bengal, Orissa and in Gujarat, Rajasthan
• 7th-8th century : TN, Karnataka
• 9th century : Kerala
• 12th century : entire sub-continent except Punjab

Brahmadeyas

• Confirmed by royal decrees, given for political dimension
• Feudalism hypothesis says that it was the cause and a symptom of political fragmentation
  • Why would kings erode their own political power
  • Period was not of political fragmentation
  • Was actually given for integrative and legitimizing policies coz Brahmana’s enjoyed socio-religious privileged status
  • Grants were made from lands that made revenue realisation difficult
  • It did not deplete state resources
  • Made by powerful kings shows higher level of control over productive resources by the King
• Brahmans emerged as ideologues and legitimizers of political power through sacrifice performance
• They crafted royal genealogies, gave kings higher Varna status, mythical origin
• Brahmana Beneficiaries
  • Were associated with the royal court
  • Early donees were in-charge of performance of rituals, as priests, astrologers, administrators

Land Grants as part of Larger Social and Cultural Process

• BD Chattopadhyay - major historical process was the expansion of state society was through process of local state formation, transformation of tribes into peasants and caste formation, cult appropriation and interaction

• Strengthened position of Brahmana in rural areascontrol over resources, manpower
• Brah emerged as dominant caste in such villages
• Tribes were brought under the plough
• Proliferation of certain castes for ex Kayasthas etc happened
• Among the Brahmanas themselves hierarchies and regional classification emerged
  • Integration into local society and tradition led to new cultural changes among them like Payyanur Brahmans of Kerala took matriliny
• Brahamans merged their activities to the temple milieu - temples emerged as promoters sectarian religion, Sabhas managed temple activities
• Tribal and Brahmanical cultural interaction ex cult of Jagannatha in Orissa shows Brahmanization of tribal diety, Tantricism

Ideology

• was means of acquiring merit and destroying sin as per Brahmanical texts
• Various gifts that were mentioned in Smritis and Puranas were food grains, gold, money, cultivable land, plough cows, oxen etc.
• Temple as an institution gained a more central role in agrarian expansion and land grants were made to temple priests. Earlier only Vedic priests were given.
• Non Brahmanical religious institutions like the Samghas of Buddhists and Basadis of the Jainas also vied for land grants.

PYQs and Answers

1. Critically evaluate the theory and practise of land revenue system in ancient India. [2016, 20 Marks]

• earliest stone inscriptions recording land grants with tax exemptions are Satavahana and Kshatrapa epigraphs
• Along with revenue rights the rights to mines and minerals
• https://www.gktoday.in/gk/land-revenue-in-ancient-india/

Answer

The theory and practice of land revenue system in ancient India can be critically evaluated from various perspectives, such as the sources, the principles, the methods, the rates, the administration, and the impact of the land revenue system on the society, economy, and polity of ancient India.

Some of the salient points of the answer are:

• The sources of land revenue system in ancient India are mainly the literary sources, such as the Dharmashastras, the Arthashastras, the Puranas, the Epics, and the Buddhist and Jain texts, which provide the normative and prescriptive aspects of the land revenue system, such as the duties, rights, and obligations of the king, the officials, and the subjects, the types, modes, and purposes of taxation, and the penalties, exemptions, and remissions of the land revenue. The sources also include the epigraphic and numismatic sources, such as the inscriptions, the coins, and the seals, which provide the historical and descriptive aspects of the land revenue system, such as the names, titles, and achievements of the rulers, the officials, and the donors, the grants, donations, and endowments of the land, and the measurements, classifications, and assessments of the land[^1^][2] [^2^][3] [^3^][4].
• The principles of land revenue system in ancient India are mainly the principles of protection, consent, and moderation, which are derived from the political, ethical, and religious ideals of the ancient Indian society. The principle of protection implies that the king has the right to levy taxes from the subjects in return for providing them security and welfare. The principle of consent implies that the king has to consult and respect the wishes and interests of the subjects, especially the village assemblies and the guilds, in matters of taxation. The principle of moderation implies that the king has to avoid excessive and arbitrary taxation, and follow the guidelines and limits prescribed by the scriptures and the customs[^1^][2] [^2^][3] [^4^][5].
• The methods of land revenue system in ancient India are mainly the methods of measurement, classification, and assessment, which are based on the scientific and rational criteria of the land and its productivity. The method of measurement involves the use of various units and standards of length, area, and volume, such as the angula, the hasta, the danda, the kulyavapa, and the drona, to determine the size and shape of the land. The method of classification involves the use of various categories and grades of soil, water, and crops, such as the urvara, the usara, the sadharana, the vardhaki, and the kshetra, to determine the quality and yield of the land. The method of assessment involves the use of various modes and forms of payment, such as the bali, the bhaga, the bhoga, the kara, and the uparikara, to determine the amount and mode of the land revenue[^1^][2] [^2^][3] [^4^][5].
• The rates of land revenue system in ancient India are mainly the rates of share, fixed, and mixed, which are based on the proportion, the amount, and the combination of the land revenue. The rate of share implies that the land revenue is a fixed percentage of the produce of the land, which varies from 1/6 to 1/2, depending on the quality of the soil, the availability of water, and the type of crops. The rate of fixed implies that the land revenue is a fixed amount of money or kind, which is determined by the measurement and classification of the land. The rate of mixed implies that the land revenue is a combination of share and fixed, which is adjusted according to the fluctuations of the seasons and the markets[^1^][2] [^2^][3] [^4^][5].
• The administration of land revenue system in ancient India is mainly the administration of central, provincial, and local, which are based on the hierarchy, the division, and the delegation of the land revenue authority and responsibility. The administration of central implies that the king is the supreme authority and the ultimate beneficiary of the land revenue, who is assisted by various ministers, officials, and departments, such as the samaharta, the sannidhata, the adhyaksha, and the koshthagara, to collect, store, audit, and distribute the land revenue. The administration of provincial implies that the governor is the delegated authority and the intermediary beneficiary of the land revenue, who is assisted by various officers, agents, and collectors.

The administration of local also involves the participation and cooperation of the village assemblies and the guilds, which are the autonomous and democratic institutions of the ancient Indian society, which have the power and the right to regulate, represent, and protect the interests and welfare of the villagers and the traders in matters of taxation and administration.

• The impact of land revenue system in ancient India is mainly the impact of economic, social, and political, which are based on the consequences, the effects, and the implications of the land revenue system on the ancient Indian society, economy, and polity. The impact of economic implies that the land revenue system was the main source of income and wealth for the state, the officials, and the subjects, which enabled the state to finance its administration, defense, and welfare, the officials to enjoy their privileges and salaries, and the subjects to engage in various productive and commercial activities. The land revenue system also stimulated the development of agriculture, trade, and industry, which increased the production, circulation, and consumption of goods and services, and enhanced the prosperity, stability, and growth of the ancient Indian economy.

• The impact of social implies that the land revenue system was the main factor of differentiation and stratification of the ancient Indian society, which created various classes, groups, and categories of people, such as the landlords, the tenants, the peasants, the artisans, and the merchants, who had different rights, duties, and obligations in relation to the land and its revenue. The land revenue system also influenced the distribution of land, wealth, and power among the people, which resulted in the emergence of various inequalities, conflicts, and movements in the ancient Indian society.

• The impact of political implies that the land revenue system was the main instrument of control and expansion of the ancient Indian polity, which enabled the rulers to assert their authority and legitimacy over the land and its people, and to extend their territory and influence over other regions and kingdoms. The land revenue system also affected the relations and interactions between the rulers and the ruled, the center and the provinces, and the state and the society, which shaped the nature, character, and dynamics of the ancient Indian polity

1. What were the privileges granted to the donees in land-grant charters of early India? How far were these charters responsible for integration or disintegration socio-political milieu? [2014, 20m]

• [Land Grants](onenote: [[Land]] %20Grants&section-id={2110BA3C-72E8-4577-8193-6ED6C19057D2}&page-id={9175A752-346F-4471-A83D-4C678E0B9052}&end&base-path= https://d.docs.live.net/bbc8be5bd337910c/Documents/History%20Optional/Ancient%20History/Part%20II/Guptas%5eJ%20Vakatakas%20and%20Vardhans.one )

Answer

The donees were usually religious institutions or individuals, such as Brahmins, Buddhist monks, Jain ascetics, temples, monasteries, etc., who received land grants as a form of patronage and merit-making by the donors[^1.

• The donees were granted various privileges and immunities along with the land, such as exemption from taxes and duties, rights over water resources, fishing and hunting, forests and mines, trade and commerce, etc., which made them autonomous and prosperous.

• The donees were also granted judicial and administrative authority over the land and its inhabitants, such as the power to punish offenders, settle disputes, collect revenues, appoint officials, etc., which made them influential and powerful.

• The donees were also granted protection and security by the state or the donor, who issued warnings and curses against anyone who would violate or interfere with the grant. The donees were also assured that their grants would be enjoyed by their descendants in perpetuity.

• The impact of these privileges on the socio-political milieu of early India was complex and varied. On one hand, they contributed to the integration of different regions, religions, castes, and classes by fostering a network of patronage and allegiance between the rulers and the ruled. They also facilitated cultural exchange and diffusion by promoting religious diversity and tolerance. They also stimulated economic development by encouraging agricultural expansion and urbanization. On the other hand, they also led to disintegration of political authority by creating parallel centers of power that challenged or defied the state. They also caused social stratification by creating inequalities and conflicts between different groups over land rights. They also fostered sectarianism by creating rivalries among different religious sects for patronage.